Earth and Space News

Thursday, September 13, 2012

Lighted Dark Space Affirms Bang! The Complete History of the Universe

Summary: Lighted dark space asserts The Lure of the Skies introduction to Bang! The Complete History of the Universe by Brian May, Patrick Moore and Chris Lintott.

Bang! co-authors Chris Lintott, Sir Patrick Moore and Brian May at AstroFest 2007; United Kingdom, Saturday, Feb. 10, 2007: Steve Elliott (jabberwock), CC BY SA 2.0 Generic, via Wikimedia Commons

Lighted dark space abounds for admirers of The Lure of the Skies, as introductory chapter to the fourth, 2012 edition of Bang! The Complete History of the Universe and as night-time activity.

Brian May, Patrick Moore and Chris Lintott, respective specialists in the zodiak dust cloud, the Moon and galactic formation and evolution, begin Bang! with Sun-like stars. The three co-authors correlate coordinated, five-decade analytical and observational competence with current computer capabilities and with the Hubble Space Telescope data collection beyond the Earth's atmosphere. Edwin Hubble (Nov. 20, 1889-Sept. 28, 1953) and George Gamow (March 4, 1904-Aug. 19, 1968) respectively described an expanding universe and a universe with a birthdate.

Hermann Bondi (Nov. 1, 1919-Sept. 10, 2005), Thomas Gold (May 22, 1920-June 22, 2004) and Fred Hoyle (June 24, 1915-Aug. 20, 2001) elaborated a steady-state universe.

Cosmic microwave background furnished Arno Allan Penzias (born April 26, 1933) and Robert Woodrow Wilson (born Jan. 10, 1936) with the universe's big-banged, non-steady state birthdate.

The universe's big-banged birth 13.7 billion years ago generated our 8,000-mile (12,000-kilometer) diameter Earth 93,000,000 miles (150,000,000 kilometers) from our dwarf-star Sun 4.6 billion years ago. Three billion to 9.1 billion years after its big-banged birth the changing universe had the respectively oldest and youngest of our Milky Way's 100,000,000,000 Sun-like stars. The 186,000-mile (300,000-kilometer) speed of light per second, somewhat less than the 250,000-mile (400,000-kilometer) Earth-Moon distance, increments to the 6,000,000,000,000-mile (9,600,000,000,000-kilometer) speed of light per year.

Lighted dark space juggles the constellation Orion's cool-red, 186,000,000-mile (300,000,000-kilometer) diameter Betelgeuse and white-hot, 65,000,000-mile (105,000,000-kilometer) diameter Rigel, 640 and 860 light-years from our intermediate-yellow Sun.

Light-years kindle astronomical knowledge of space distances, not space times, with Sirius, brightest night-sky star, 8.6 light-years from, and 26 times more powerful than, our Sun.

Earthlings in 2012 look at light that left the Pole Star Polaris, 400 light-years away, the year before William Shakespeare's death (April 23?, 1564-April 23, 1616). Light moved from Rigel three years after the Second (Dec. 1, 1145-June 29, 1149) Crusade and from the universe's remotest visible objects 12-plus billion years ago. Co-author Chris Lintott of the Department of Physics and of New College, Oxford University, notes light from the early universe's smaller galaxies 6 billion light-years away.

Imaginary, year-encapsulated timescales offer 4.6-billion-year-old Earth's birth in lighted dark space Jan. 1, primitive life early May, fish mid-November, terrestrials end November and reptiles early December.

Those timescales present mammals succeeding dinosaurs Dec. 15 and ape-men the morning, humans the last hour and Jesus (6 B.C.E.?-29 C.E.?) the last minute Dec. 31.

Time ever-existing without beginnings or endings queues up, or time 13.7 billion years ago queued up, atoms and molecules for earthly existence 9.1 billion years later. Mathematical equations reveal time, non-existent before the Big Bang, as the fourth coordinate to latitude, longitude and miles/meters above sea level on the big-banged universe's Earth. Time, something relative to the specific situation, serves as no absolute, reliable standard for sending light signals simultaneously between Earth and Proxima Centauri 4.243 light-years away.

The theory of the Big Bang that turned on lighted dark space 13.7 billion years ago turns out predictions that thus far test true through observations.

Co-authors Brian May, Sir Patrick Moore and Chris Lintott signed copies of their book, Bang! The Complete History of the Universe, first published in 2006, at AstroFest 2007; Friday, Feb. 9, 2007: Steve Elliott (jabberwock), CC BY SA 2.0 Generic, via Flickr

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Bang! co-authors Chris Lintott, Sir Patrick Moore and Brian May at AstroFest 2007; United Kingdom, Saturday, Feb. 10, 2007: Steve Elliott (jabberwock), CC BY SA 2.0 Generic, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lintott,_Moore,_May.jpg#mw-jump-to-license; Steve Elliott (jabberwock), CC BY SA 2.0 Generic, via Flickr @ https://www.flickr.com/photos/jabberwock/398090286/

Lintott, Chris; Brian May; and Sir Patrick Moore. "A Story of Astronomical Importance." New York Times Blog: Across the Universe. March 5, 2007.
Available @ https://acrosstheuniverse.blogs.nytimes.com/author/chris-lintott-brian-may-sir-patrick-moore/

May, Brian; Patrick Moore; and Chris Lintott. 2012. Bang! The Complete History of the Universe. London UK: Carlton Books Limited.

Wednesday, September 12, 2012

W. Bond Crater Parents Six Satellites Near Northern Mare Frigoris

Summary: W. Bond Crater parents six satellites near northern Mare Frigoris, in the near side’s north polar region.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Chart (LAC) 3 shows (lower right) four (B, C, E, F) of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites (lower right); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

W. Bond Crater parents six satellites near northern Mare Frigoris (Sea of Cold) as a crater system occupying the eastern and western hemispheres in the near side’s north polar region.

Irregularly shaped W. Bond Crater is centered at 65.41 degrees north latitude, 3.52 degrees east longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The north polar region crater marks northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 68.15 degrees north and 62.66 degrees north, respectively. W. Bond Crater’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 9.72 degrees east and minus 2.54 degrees west, respectively, reflect its occupancy of both the eastern and western hemispheres. W. Bond Crater’s diameter spans 170.53 kilometers.

W. Bond Crater parents six satellites in the lunar near side’s northeastern quadrant. All six satellites are found in the eastern hemisphere.

W. Bond B and C are located on their parent’s east-southeastern interior floor. They lie to the southeast of a narrow rille (German for “groove”) that angles across W. Bond Crater’s interior floor toward the eastern rim.

W. Bond B sits to the southwest of satellite C. Satellite B is centered at 65.03 degrees north latitude, 7.51 degrees east longitude. It finds northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 65.28 degrees north and 64.78 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at 8.11 degrees east and 6.92 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond B’s diameter measures 15.24 kilometers.

W. Bond C claims the most northerly position of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites. C is centered at 65.69 degrees north latitude, 8.25 degrees east longitude. It obtains northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 65.81 degrees north and 65.57 degrees north, respectively. Satellite C’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes occur at 8.55 degrees east and 7.96 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond C has a diameter of 7.39 kilometers.

W. Bond D claims the most westerly position of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites. D is sited on its parent’s southern floor, to the distant southeast of W. Bond C. Satellite D is centered at 63.6 degrees north latitude, 3.21 degrees east longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 63.72 degrees north and 63.49 degrees north, respectively. Satellite D registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 3.47 degrees east and 2.96 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond D has a diameter of 6.85 kilometers.

W. Bond E is positioned to the northeast of satellite D and to the southeast of satellites B and C. Satellite E is centered at 63.8 degrees north latitude, 8.96 degrees east longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes extend from 64.23 degrees north to 63.38 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes reach 9.88 degrees east and 8.03 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond E’s diameter of 24.95 kilometers qualifies it as the W. Bond Crater system’s largest satellite.

W. Bond F claims the most easterly position of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites. G neighbors on satellite E’s northern rim. F is centered at 64.45 degrees north latitude, 9.46 degrees east longitude. It posts northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 64.6 degrees north and 64.31 degrees north, respectively. Satellite F’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes touch 9.81 degrees east and 9.12 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond F has a diameter of 9.02 kilometers.

W. Bond G claims the most southerly position of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites. G lies to the southeast of satellite D and to the southwest of satellite E. G is centered at 63.07 degrees north latitude, 6.86 degrees east longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes are reached at 63.13 degrees north and 63 degrees north, respectively. G’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes are obtained at 7 degrees east and 6.71 degrees east, respectively. W. Bond G’s diameter of 3.98 kilometers qualifies it as the W. Bond Crater system’s smallest satellite.

The takeaways for W. Bond Crater’s parentage of six satellites near northern Mare Frigoris are that the W. Bond Crater system’s sextet are associated with their parent’s eastern hemisphere portion; that W. Bond E claims the largest diameter of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites; and that the most southerly satellite, W. Bond G, claims the smallest diameter of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Chart (LAC) 12 shows (upper right) three (D, E, G) of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites; courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Target: The Moon.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/MOON/target

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/6466

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond B.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13755

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond C.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13756

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond D.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13757

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond E.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13758

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13759

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “W. Bond G.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/13760

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “W. Bond Crater Honors American Astronomer William Cranch Bond.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Sept. 5, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/09/w-bond-crater-honors-american.html

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

Wednesday, September 5, 2012

W. Bond Crater Honors American Astronomer William Cranch Bond

Summary: W. Bond Crater honors American astronomer William Cranch Bond, who served as the first director of Harvard College Observatory.

view of W. Bond Crater obtained by Lunar Orbiter 4: James Stuby (Jstuby), Public Domain (CC0 1.0), via Wikimedia Commons

W. Bond Crater honors American astronomer William Cranch Bond, whose appointment in 1839 as Astronomical Observer to the University marked the founding of the Harvard College University (HCO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

W. Bond Crater occurs as a near-side crater in the north polar region. English amateur astronomer Edmund Neville Nevill (Aug. 27, 1849-Jan. 14, 1940), who wrote his 1876 lunar guide, The Moon and the Condition and Configuration of Its Surface, pseudonymously as Edmund Neison, noted W. Bond’s occupancy of both the eastern and western hemispheres. He described the crater as an “. . . extensive walled-plain traversed by the selenographical first meridian . . .” (page 237). Although most of the crater lies in the lunar eastern hemisphere, a portion of western W. Bond juts across the lunar prime meridian, zero degrees longitude.

W. Bond Crater is an irregularly shaped crater with a generally eroded rim. The crater’s interior floor displays relative flatness, although the floor roughens near the crater’s northern rim.

British selenographer Thomas Gwyn Empy Elger (Oct. 27, 1836-Jan. 9, 1897) described W. Bond, also known then as W.C. Bond, as a “great enclosed plain of rhomboidal shape” (page 66) in his Victorian-Age lunar guide, The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features, published in 1895. Elger also observed: “The interior, which is covered with rows of hillocks, is very noteworthy at sunrise.

W. Bond Crater is centered at 65.41 degrees north latitude, 3.52 degrees east longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The northern hemisphere crater’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes occur at 68.15 degrees north and 62.66 degrees north, respectively. The eastern-western straddler obtains easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 9.72 degrees east and minus 2.54 degrees west, respectively. W. Bond Crater’s diameter measures 170.53 kilometers.

Pentagon-shaped Timaeus Crater blends with southwestern W. Bond Crater. Timaeus is centered at 62.91 degrees north latitude, minus 0.55 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 63.45 degrees north and 62.38 degrees north, respectively. Timaeus registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 0.57 degrees east and minus 1.67 degrees west, respectively. Timaeus Crater has a diameter of 32.81 kilometers.

W. Bond Crater parents six satellites. All of the W. Bond Crater system’s satellites are associated with their parent’s eastern portion.

W. Bond Crater lies near the northern edge of Mare Frigoris (Sea of Cold). The elongated lunar mare is centered at 57.59 degrees north latitude, minus 0.01 degrees west longitude. Mare Frigoris stretches across lunar middle and polar latitudes, with northernmost and southernmost latitudes reaching 64.38 degrees north and 49.08 degrees north, respectively. Frigoris straddles the moon’s eastern and western hemispheres, with easternmost and westernmost longitudes tapping 38.03 degrees east and minus 43.14 degrees west, respectively. Mare Frigoris’ diameter spans 1,446.41 kilometers.

W. Bond Crater honors American astronomer William Cranch Bond (Sept. 9, 1789-Jan. 29, 1859). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) approved W. Bond as the crater’s official name in 1935, during the organization’s Vth (5th) General Assembly, which was held in Paris France, from Wednesday, July 10, to Wednesday, July 17. The letter designations of the W. Bond Crater system’s six satellites were adopted in 2006.

William Cranch Bond was trained in the family business of making clocks and chronometers. In addition to his skill with precise timepieces, he pursued an interest in observational astronomy. The avid amateur astronomer converted the parlor of his home at 158 East Cottage Street in Dorchester into an observatory and mounted an array of astronomical instruments in his yard.

He was appointed as "Astronomical Observer" for the founding of Harvard College Observatory (HCO) in 1839. His astronomical accomplishments at the observatory included the discovery of the eighth Saturnian moon, now known as Hyperion, on Saturday, Sept. 16, 1848. He made the discovery with his second son, George Phillips Bond (May 20, 1825-Feb. 17, 1865), who served as his father’s assistant. In his report of the Saturnian discovery for the Nov. 10, 1848, issue of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, William noted that the satellite was perceived as a “. . . point of light . . . in the plane of Saturn’s ring, between Titan and Japetus . . .” (page 1).

Approximately two years two months after their discovery of Hyperion, the father-son team made another Saturnian discovery. In November 1850, they discerned a new, dark ring (now known as C Ring) inward of Saturn’s B Ring. William reported that George made the first drawing of the new ring on Monday, Nov. 11. Father and son observed the new ring again on Friday, Nov. 15, and continued their observations to Tuesday, Jan. 7, 1851.

The takeaways for W. Bond Crater, which honors American astronomer William Cranch Bond, are that the irregularly shaped, generally eroded crater lies primarily in the lunar near side’s northeastern quadrant; that a portion of western W. Bond Crater juts into the western hemisphere; that the W. Bond Crater system parents six satellites; and that the W. Bond Crater system’s namesake directed Harvard College Observatory from its founding in 1839 until his death in 1859; and that his astronomical accomplishments as director included co-discovery of Saturn’s eighth moon, now known as Hyperion, and of Saturn’s C ring with his assistant and second son, George Phillips Bond.

Detail of Shaded Relief and Color-Coded Topography Map shows W. Bond Crater (upper center) straddling the western and eastern hemisphere in the lunar far’s northwestern and northeastern quadrants: U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

View of W. Bond Crater, obtained by Lunar Orbiter 4: James Stuby (Jstuby), Public Domain (CC0 1.0), via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:W_Bond_crater_4116_h1_h2.jpg

Andersson, Leif E.; and Ewen A. Whitaker. NASA Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature. NASA Reference Publication 1097. Washington DC: NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Scientific and Technical Information Branch, October 1982.
Available via NASA NTRS (NASA Technical Reports Server) @ https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19830003761.pdf

Bond, W.C. “Discovery of a New Satellite of Saturn.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. IX, no. 1 (Nov. 10, 1848): 1-2.
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1848MNRAS...9....1B
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1848MNRAS...9....1B

Bond, W.C. “On the New Ring of Saturn.” Astronomical Journal, vol. II, no. 25, no. 1 (May 2, 1851): 5.
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1851AJ......2Q...5B
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1851AJ......2Q...5B

Bond, William Cranch. “Observations on the Planet Saturn, Made With the Twenty-Three Foot Equatoreal at the Observatory of Harvard College, 1847-1857.” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. XVIII, no. 3 (Jan. 8, 1858): 75-78.
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1858MNRAS..18...75B
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1858MNRAS..18...75B
Available via HathiTrust @ https://hdl.handle.net/2027/njp.32101081655340?urlappend=%3Bseq=643

Bowker, David E.; and J. Kenrick Hughes. “Photo No. IV-104-H1 Plate 32.” Lunar Orbiter Photographic Atlas of the Moon. Prepared by Langley Research Center. NASA SP-206. Washington DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Scientific and Technical Information Office, Jan. 1, 1971.
Available via NASA NTRS (NASA Technical Reports Server) @ http://hdl.handle.net/2060/19730005152
Available via Universities Space Research Association’s (USRA) Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunar_orbiter/bin/info.shtml?272

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Elger, Thomas Gwyn. “W.C. Bond.” The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features: 66. London UK: George Philip & Son, 1895.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/moonfulldescript00elgerich/page/66

Elger, Thomas Gwyn. “Walled-Plains.” The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features: 10-12. London UK: George Philip & Son, 1895.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/moonfulldescript00elgerich/page/10

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

Harvard College Observatory. “Harvard College Observatory -- Plate Stacks.” Harvard College Observatory Astronomical Photographic Plate Collection > About the Collection.
Available @ https://platestacks.cfa.harvard.edu/about-collection

Hirshfeld, Alan. “William Cranch Bond: Brief Life of Harvard’s First Astronomer: 1789-1859.” Harvard Magazine > Features / Vita. September-October 2015.
Available @ https://harvardmagazine.com/2015/08/william-cranch-bond

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mare Frigoris.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3674

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Timaeus.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/6008

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “Sheepshanks Crater Honors British Astronomical Benefactor Anne Sheepshanks.” Earth and Space News. Feb. 1, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/02/sheepshanks-crater-honors-british.html

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions.” The Moon.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Frigoris.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > F Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Frigoris

The Moon Wiki. “Timaeus.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > T Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Timaeus

The Moon Wiki. “W. Bond.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > W Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/W._Bond

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

Neison, Edmund. “Walled-plains.” The Moon, and the Condition and Configurations of Its Surface: 54-56. London UK: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1876.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/moonconditioncon00neis/page/54

Neison, Edmund. “W.C. Bond (B).” The Moon, and the Condition and Configurations of Its Surface: 237. London UK: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1876.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/moonconditioncon00neis/page/237

Stratton, F.J.M. (Frederick John Marrian), ed. Vth General Assembly Transactions of the IAU Vol. V B Proceedings of the 5th General Assembly Paris France, July 10-17, 1935. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, Jan. 1, 1936.
Available @ https://www.iau.org/publications/iau/transactions_b/

van der Hucht, Karel A., ed. XXVIth General Assembly Transactions of the IAU Vol. XVII B Proceedings of the 26th General Assembly Prague, Czech Republic, August 14-25, 2006. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, Dec. 30, 2008.
Available @ https://www.iau.org/publications/iau/transactions_b/

Westfall, John; and William Sheehan. Celestial Shadows: Eclipses, Transits, and Occultations. Astrophysics and Space Science Library 410. New York NY: Springer-Verlag, 2015.

Whitford-Stark, J.L. “The Volcanotectonic Evolution of Mare Frigoris.” 20th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, TX, March 13-17, 1989, Proceedings. Houston TX: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1990.
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1990LPSC...20..175W
Available via Harvard ADSABS (NASA Astrophysics Data System Abstracts) @ http://adsabs.harvard.edu/pdf/1990LPSC...20..175W

Wednesday, August 29, 2012

Leeuwenhoek Crater Honors Dutch Microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Summary: The lunar far side’s Leeuwenhoek Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a pioneer explorer of microbial life.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 72 shows the lunar far side’s Mees Crater system of parental Mees (left center) and satellites A (upper center), Y (upper left) and J (center); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

The lunar far side’s Mees Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who pioneered the study of the microscopic world during the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology.

Leeuwenhoek Crater is a lunar impact crater with an eroded, worn outer rim. A central peak rises from the interior floor as a midpoint marker. A pair of craters form the northern and eastern points of a triangle with the central peak.

Leeuwenhoek occupies the lunar far side’s southeastern quadrant. Its westernmost extent misses the lunar antimeridian by only 1.08 degrees.

As on Earth, the moon’s 180th meridian, common to both east and west longitudes, represents the geographical antipode, or diametrical opposite, of the moon’s prime meridian. The moon’s zero degree line of longitude demarcates the near side’s western and eastern halves, just as the lunar 180th meridian distinguishes the far side’s western and eastern halves.

Leeuwenhoek Crater is centered at minus 29.28 degrees south latitude, minus 178.87 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The crater’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes reach minus 27.24 degrees south and minus 31.33 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes extend to minus 176.65 degrees west and 178.92 degrees east, respectively. Leeuwenhoek Crater’s diameter spans 125 kilometers.

The primary crater parents one satellite, Leeuwenhoek E. Part of eastern Leeuwenhoek covers much of western Leeuwenhoek E.

Leeuwenhoek E is centered at minus 28.51 degrees south latitude, minus 176.27 degrees west longitude. The satellite obtains northernmost and southernmost latitudes at minus 26.83 degrees south and minus 30.2 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes occur at minus 174.35 degrees west and minus 178.19 degrees west, respectively. The satellite’s diameter of 102.11 kilometers approximates 81.70 percent of its parent’s 125-kilometer diameter.

The Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s busy neighborhood features three close neighbors. Nassau F, Orlov and Rumford T reside as close neighbors to the north, northeast and east, respectively.

Nassau F hovers to the north of parental Leeuwenhoek and to the northwest of Leeuwenhoek E. Nassau F claims the most southerly and easterly reaches of the Nassau Crater system’s three satellites.

Nassau F is centered at minus 25.33 degrees south latitude, minus 179.09 degrees west longitude. It registers northernmost and southernmost latitudes at minus 23.75 degrees south and minus 26.92 degrees south, respectively. It finds easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 177.01 degrees west and 178.82 degrees east, respectively. Nassau F’s diameter measures 115.37 kilometers.

Northeastern Leeuwenhoek E jostles the outward bulge in southwestern Orlov Crater. Orlov is centered at minus 25.77 degrees south latitude, minus 175.08 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 24.59 degrees south and minus 26.95 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at minus 173.75 degrees west and minus 176.41 degrees west, respectively. Orlov Crater has a diameter of 72.93 kilometers.

Rumford T resides as Leeuwenhoek E’s eastern neighbor. Rumford T claims the largest diameter in the Rumford Crater system.

Rumford T is centered at minus 28.54 degrees south latitude, minus 172.15 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch from minus 26.7 degrees south to minus 30.38 degrees south, respectively. It posts easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 170.05 degrees west and minus 174.24 degrees west, respectively. Rumford T’s diameter measures 111.67 kilometers.

Leeuwenhoek Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (Oct. 24, 1632-Aug. 26, 1723). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) approved Leeuwenhoek as the crater’s official name in 1970, during the organization’s XIVth (14th) General Assembly, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, from Tuesday, Aug. 18, to Thursday, Aug. 27. Prior to its formal naming, Leeuwenhoek Crater was known as Crater 375.

Approval of the letter designation for the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s solitary satellite was granted in 2006. The satellite’s letter designation, E, represents its northeasterly placement with respect to its parent. According to the lettered 24-hour dial, E’s position between 2 (D) and 3 (F) translates as northeast of its parent’s location at the clock face’s center.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s concern for accurate assessment of the quality of the thread in the cloths sold in his draper shop motivated his interest in lensmaking. The self-taught microscopist then applied his powerful lenses to the study of microscopic organisms.

With the encouragement of Dutch Golden Age anatomist and physician Reinier de Graaf (July 30, 1641-Aug. 17, 1673), van Leeuwenhoek’s began communicating his microbiological observations to the Royal Society, formally known as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. His first report, published in The Royal Society’s Philosophical Transactions in 1673, described microscopic observations of mold, a bee and a louse. Van Leeuwenhoek’s microbiological discoveries included documentation of such phenomena as bacteria, protozoa and spermatozoa.

According to The Royal Society website, Philosophical Transactions published 190 communications from van Leeuwenhoek. The self-taught microscopist and microbiologist was elected as a Fellow of The Royal Society on Jan. 29, 1680.

The takeaways for Leeuwenhoek Crater, which honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, are that the far side lunar impact crater parents one satellite in the southeastern quadrant; that Nassau F, Orlov and Rumford T occur as the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s immediate neighbors; and that the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s namesake was a draper whose self-taught skills as a maker of magnifying lenses led him to discoveries of microscopic phenomena.

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 104 shows the lunar far side’s Leeuwenhoek Crater system of parental Leeuwenhoek (lower left) and satellite E (center), with neighbors Nassau F (upper left), Orlov (upper center) and Rumford T (center-lower right); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/images/Lunar/lac104_wac.pdf

Image obtained with 70mm Hasselblad camera during the Apollo 17 mission’s lunar revolution 16, December 1972, shows Orlov Y (lower-center), Orlov Crater (upper left) and the Leeuwenhoek Crater system of satellite E and primary Leeuwenhoek (upper); NASA ID AS17-150-22949: No known copyright restrictions, via U.S. National Archives @ https://nara.getarchive.net/media/as17-150-22949-apollo-17-apollo-17-moon-orlov-leeuwenhoek-4af539; via USRA LPI’s Apollo Image Atlas @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/frame/?AS17-150-22949

For further information:

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

de Jager, C.; and A. (Arnost) Jappel, eds. XIVth General Assembly Transactions of the IAU Vol. XIV B Proceedings of the 14th General Assembly Brighton, United Kingdom, August 18-27, 1970. Washington DC: Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Jan. 1, 1971.
Available @ https://www.iau.org/publications/iau/transactions_b/

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Leeuwenhoek.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3329

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Leeuwenhoek E.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10721

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Nassau F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/11543

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Orlov.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4493

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford T.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12732

Leeuwenhoeck, M. (Monsieur); and Dr. Regnerus de Graaf. “A Specimen of Some Observations Made by a Microscope, Contrived by M. Leewenhoeck in Holland, Lately Communicated by Dr. Regnerus de Graaf.” Philosophical Transactions, vol. 8 (1673): 6037-6038.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/101348

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “Bragg Crater Honors British Physicist Sir William Henry Bragg.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, March 14, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/03/bragg-crater-honors-british-physicist.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Harkhebi Crater Honors Early Ptolemaic Astronomer Prince Harkhebi.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Jan. 18, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/01/harkhebi-crater-honors-early-ptolemaic.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Harkhebi Crater Parents Six Satellites on Lunar Far Side.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Jan. 25, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/01/harkhebi-crater-parents-six-satellites.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Maxwell Crater Honors Scottish Mathematical Physicist James Maxwell.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, June 13, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/maxwell-crater-honors-scottish.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Mees Crater Honors British-Born American Photographer Kenneth Mees.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Aug. 8, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/08/mees-crater-honors-british-born.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Pogson Crater Honors British Astronomer Norman Robert Pogson.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, June 20, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/pogson-crater-honors-british-astronomer.html

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions.” The Moon.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Leeuwenhoek.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > L Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Leeuwenhoek

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration; and Department of Defense Aeronautical Chart and Information Center. Lunar Farside Chart LFC-1. Second edition. October 1967.
Available @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/LunarFarsideCharts/LFC-1%201stEd/LFC-1%202ndEd/LFC-1A/

The Royal Society. “Leeuwenhoek; Antoni van (1632-1723); Naturalist.” The Royal Society > Collections > Fellows.
Available @ https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=25&dsqSearch=%28%28text%29%3D%27leeuwenhoek%27%29

Wednesday, August 22, 2012

Rumford Crater Parents Six Satellites on Lunar Far Side

Summary: Rumford Crater parents six satellites on the lunar far side, in the southeastern quadrant, in proximity to the 180th meridian.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 104 shows the Rumford Crater system’s western satellites, Rumford Q and T, on the lunar far side; courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Rumford Crater parents six satellites on the lunar side as a crater system in the southeastern quadrant, in proximity to the 180th meridian, the antimeridian.

Dark-floored Rumford Crater is centered at minus 28.81 degrees south latitude, minus 169.8 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch from minus 27.81 degrees south to minus 29.81 degrees south, respectively. The southern hemisphere crater’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes reach minus 168.66 degrees west and minus 170.95 degrees west, respectively. Rumford Crater’s diameter measures 60.83 kilometers.

Rumford Crater parents six satellites. Two satellites reside as their parent’s west side neighbors. Four satellites favor their parent’s east side.

The letter designations of Rumford Q and Rumford T indicate the two satellites’ westerly position with respect to their parent. T occupies a westerly location while Q is sited to the southwest of its parent.

Rumford T occurs as its parent’s most proximitous satellite. Its parent’s western rim overlies satellite T’s eastern rim. T holds the most westerly position in the Rumford Crater system.

Rumford T is centered at minus 28.54 degrees south latitude, minus 172.15 degrees west longitude. The satellite post northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 26.7 degrees south and minus 30.38 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at minus 170.05 degrees west and minus 174.24 degrees west, respectively. Rumford T’s diameter spans 111.67 kilometers.

Rumford T’s diameter qualifies it as the largest of the Rumford Crater system’s six satellites and, indeed, as the system’s largest crater. Parental Rumford’s diameter of 60.83 kilometers approximates 54.5 percent of satellite T’s 111.67 kilometer-diameter.

Rumford Q claims the most southerly location in the Rumford Crater system. Rumford Q lies to the southwest of its parent and to the south-southeast of Rumford T.

Rumford Q is centered at minus 30.86 degrees south latitude, minus 171.76 degrees west longitude. The satellite records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 30.38 degrees south and minus 31.34 degrees south, respectively. It registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 171.2 degrees west and minus 172.32 degrees west, respectively. Rumford Q has a diameter of 29.06 kilometers.

The letter designations of Rumford A, B, C and F reveal their easterly position with respect to their parent. Satellites A, B and C hold northeasterly positions in the Rumford Crater system. Satellite F is found to the east of its parents.

Rumford A is centered at minus 25.16 degrees south latitude, minus 169.09 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost reach at minus 24.66 degrees south latitude marks the Rumford Crater system’s most northerly extent. Rumford A’s southernmost reach touches minus 25.66 degrees south latitude. The satellite obtains easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 168.54 degrees west and minus 169.64 degrees west, respectively. Rumford A’s diameter measures 30.15 kilometers.

Rumford B resides to the near east of Rumford A. Satellite B’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes occur at minus 24.75 degrees south and minus 25.47 degrees south, respectively. It posts easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 167.46 degrees west and minus 168.26 degrees west, respectively. Rumford B has a diameter of 22.07 kilometers.

Among the Rumford Crater system’s four easterly satellites, Rumford C is positioned the closest to its parent. Satellite C rests to the southeast of Rumford A, to the south of Rumford B and to the near southeast of its parent.

Rumford C is centered at minus 27.47 degrees south latitude, minus 167.92 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 27.04 degrees south and minus 27.9 degrees south, respectively. C registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 167.44 degrees west and minus 168.41 degrees west, respectively. Rumford C’s diameter measures 26.09 kilometers.

Rumford F’s placement to the east of its parent qualifies it for the most easterly position in the Rumford Crater system. Rumford F lies to the southeast of Rumford C.

Rumford F is centered at minus 28.75 degrees south latitude, minus 165.03 degrees west longitude. It posts northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 28.54 degrees south and minus 28.96 degrees south, respectively. It finds easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 164.76 degrees west and minus 165.3 degrees west, respectively. Rumford F’s diameter of 14.47 kilometers ranks it as the smallest of the Rumford Crater system’s six satellites and, indeed, as the Rumford system’s smallest crater.

The takeaways for Rumford Crater’s parentage of six satellites on the lunar far side are that two satellites claim westerly placement with respect to their parent; that four satellites favor their parent’s eastern side; that the system’s largest satellite, Rumford T, is larger than its parent; and that parental Rumford’s western rim covers Rumford T’s eastern rim.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 105 shows the Rumford Crater system’s eastern satellites (Rumford A, B, C, F) on the lunar far side; courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5220

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford A.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12727

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford B.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12728

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford C.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12729

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12730

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford Q.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12731

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “Rumford Crater Honors American-British Physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Aug. 22, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/08/rumford-crater-honors-american-british.html

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.