Sanchi Topes

Katrín Jakobsdóttir (from Greek Αικατερινη, from εκατερος, "each of the two"/αικια, "torture"/‘εκας, "far off"/ἑκατόν, "hundred"/καθαρος, "pure"; Hebrew יַעֲקֹב, "heel-grabber?/supplanter?"; and Old Norse dóttir, “daughter”)
Kiddi ([nickname] Kris, from Icelandic Kristján, from Greek χρῑστός, “the anointed one”)
Kirkjugarðar Reykjavíkurprófastsdæma (Capital Area Cemeteries, from Byzantine Greek κυριακόν δῶμα, “Lord’s house” [via Old English ċiriċe and Old Norse kirkja, "[Christian] church"; Old Norse garðr, “castle/court/courtyard/dwelling/enclosed space/fence/hold/house/stronghold/wall/yard”; reykr vík, “smoke bay”; Icelandic prófastur, “provost”; Old Norse dǿma, “to judge”)
Kjalarnes (from Old Norse kjǫlr nes, "keel cape/headland/peninsula/point/promontory")
Kjarvalsstadir Art Gallery (from Old Irish cerball, “battle/brave/fierce/sword-play”; Old Norse staðr, “abode/church/city/convent/hesitation/mark/palace/pause/place/print/see/spot/steel-elasticity/stop/town”)
Kjósarhreppur (from Old Norse kjósa, "to choose/desire/elect/select/wish"; Iceland hreppur, "[rural] municipality")
Kópavogur (from Old Norse kópr vágr, “seal[-]pup bay”)
Kringlan (from Old Norse kringla, "circle/disc/discus/orb/pretzel")
Kristján Hreinsson (from Greek χρῑστός, “the anointed one”; Latin -iānus, “-like”; Old Norse hreinn, "reindeer")
Kristján Kristjánsson (from Greek χρῑστός, “the anointed one”; and Latin -iānus, “-like”)
Lada Sport (from Russian ла́да, "darling/sweetheart" or "harmony")
Lækjargata (from Old Norse lœkr gata, “brook/rivulet road/street”)
Lake Raudavatn (from Old Norse rauður vatn, "red lake/river/waterway" via Icelandic Rauðavatn)
Landspítali Háskólasjúkrahús (National Hospital, from Old Norse land spítali hár skóli hús, “country hospital high school house”)
Langholtskirkja (Langholt Church, from Old Norse langr holt, “distant/far/long/wearisome hillock/rough stony ridge/wood”; Byzantine Greek κυριακόν δῶμα, “Lord’s house”)
Lára Marteinsdóttir (from Latin Laurentia, “woman from Laurentum [central Italian town in Latium, from Latin laurus, “laurel tree”]”; and Mārs -īnus, “[god of war] Mars pertaining” via Mārtīnus; and from Old Norse dóttir, "daughter")
laufabrauð (from Old Norse lauf brauð, "leaf bread")
Laufey Karlsdóttir (from Old Norse lauf ėy arr/herr dóttir, “foliage/leaf flat land along a coast/floodplain/island army daughter”)
Laugardalur (from Old Norse laug dalr, “bath/hot-spring/pool dale/valley”)
Laugarásvegur (from Old Norse laug vegr, “bath/hot-spring/pool road/way”)
Laugateigur (from Old Norse laug teigr, “bath/hot spring distinct land plot/portion”)
Laugavegur (from Old Norse laug vegr, “bath/hot-spring/pool road/way”) Lundey (from Icelandic lundi ey, "puffin island")
Magnús Eiríksson (from Old Norse magn/megin einn ríkr, "might/strength alone/one distinguished/empire/kingdom/mighty/rich")
Margrét Thorarensen (from Greek μαργαρίτης, "pearl"; and Old Norse þórr, "thunder"; arinn, "fireplace/immolation place" or arn, "eagle" or varinn/varr/verja/vǫrr, "alert, careful, cautious, faithful, loyal, watchful/attentive, aware, shy, wise/to defend/careful" via Icelandic Þórarinn)
María (from Egyptian mry, "beloved" or Hebrew מִרְיָם, "bitter")
Marteinn (from Latin Mārs -īnus, “[god of war] Mars pertaining” via Mārtīnus)
Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík (Reykjavík Grammar School, from Icelandic mennta, “to educate”; from Greek σχολή, “leisure[-time learning]” via Latin schola, Icelandic skóli, “school”; from Old Norse í, “in”)
Miklabraut (from Old Norse mikill braut, "great- or large-bulked or sized/much/prominent/tall-statured cleared path/road")
Möðruvellir (from Old Norse móðr vǫllr, “agitation/anger/engagement/wrath field/flat-ground/meadow”)
Morgunbladid (from Old Norse morginn/morgunn/myrginn blað, "morning plant-leaf" via Icelandic Morgunblaðið, "Morning News")
Mosfell (from Icelandic mór, "heath/moor/peat"; and Old Norse fjall, "mountain")
Mosfellsbær (from Icelandic mór, "heath/moor/peat"; Old Norse fjall, "mountain"; Old Norse bǿr, "farm/town)
Mótettukór Hallgrímskirkju (from Icelandic mótetta, “anthem”; Old Norse kórr Hallgrímr kirkja, “choir slate-helmet Christian-church”)
Nanna Thorarensen (from Old Norse nėnna, "to accomplish quickly/travel"?; þórr, "thunder"; arinn, "fireplace/immolation place" or arn, "eagle" or varinn/varr/verja/vǫrr, "alert, careful, cautious, faithful, loyal, watchful/attentive, aware, shy, wise/to defend/careful" via Icelandic Þórarinn)
National Hospital (The National Unversity Hospital of Iceland, from Icelandic Landspítali – Háskólasjúkrahús)
National Library of Iceland (Þjóðarbókhlaðan, from Old Norse þjóð bók hlað, "nation/people book barn/courtyard/farmyard"; Old Norse land bók safn íss land, “land book collection ice land’s” via Icelandic Landsbókasafn Íslands) on Hverfisgata
National Registry (Þjóðskrá Íslands, from Old Norse þjóð skrá íss land, "nation/people dried-skin/parchment/scroll/written-document ice land")
National Theatre of Iceland (from Old Norse Þjóð leikur hús, “nation/people acting house” via Icelandic Þjóðleikhúsið)
Njálsgata (from Old Irish nél/niadh, "cloud/champion"?; and Old Norse gata, "road/street")
Nýja Kökuhúsið Café (from Old Norse nýr kaka, hús “new cake house”)
Ofanleiti (from Old Norse ofan leita, “above the surface of/downwards/from above to search/seek”)
Ólafur (from Old Norse āi lėif, “great-grandfather inheritance”)
Ólöf Blöndal (from Old Norse ái lėif blanda, “ancestor inheritance blend”)
Öskjuhlíð (from Icelandic askja, “little box/[caldera] volcano”)
Østfold (from Old Norse austr- falda, "east to fold/hood"), southeast Norway
Óttar Óskarsson (from Old Norse ótti -arr, “dread-army”; óss geirr, “god spear”)
Öxnadalur (from Old Norse oxi dalur, “ox valley”)
Páll Jóhannesson (from Latin paulus, "small"; and Hebrew יוֹחָנָן, "God is gracious")
Pálmi Gunnarsson (from Latin palma,"palm branch/palm tree/palm-of-hand"; Old Norse guðr/gunnr -arr/herr, "battle/fight army")
Þerney (from Old Norse þerna ey, "tern island")
Þjóðarbókhlaðan (National Library, from Old Norse þjóð bók hlað, "nation/people book barn/courtyard/farmyard");
Þjóðleikhúsið (National Theatre of Iceland, from Old Norse Þjóð leikur hús, “nation/people acting house”);
Þjóðskrá Íslands (National Registry, from Old Norse þjóð skrá íss land, "nation/people dried-skin/parchment/scroll/written-document ice land")
Þjóðvegur (Ring Road, from Old Norse þjóð vegr, "nation/people road/way")
Pósthússtræti (from Icelandic póstur hús stræti, "mail house street")
Rás 2 (from Old Norse rás, "channel/company/host/race/running-course")
Ragnar Jónasson (from Old Norse regin, "advise/decision/divine power/might"; and Hebrew יוֹחָנָן, "God is gracious")
Dr Ragnar Ottó Arinbjarnar (July 12, 1929-Nov. 23, 1997, from Old Norse regin ótti/ōtti [or from German ōt, "riches"] ari/ǫrn biǫrn, "advise/decision/divine power/might dread/fear/terror eagle bear")
Raudalaekur (from Old Norse rauðr laukr, "red bulb/garlic/leek/onion")
Raudavatn (from Old Norse rauðr vatn, "red lake/river/water/waterway")
Reverend Halldór (hallr/hella þórr, "love/peace/protection flat stone/slate thunder")
Reykjavík (from Old Norse reykr vík, “smoke bay”)
Reykjavík Cathedral (from Latin domus, "house"; Byzantine Greek κυριακόν δόμα, "Lord's house" via Old English ċiriċe, "church" and Old Norse kirkja, "[Christian] church"; Old Norse í reykr vík, "in smoke bay"; via Icelandic Dómkirkjan í Reykjavík)
Reykjavik City Council (Borgarstjórn Reykjavíkur, from Old Norse borg stjóri, "castle/stronghold boss/captain/chief/conductor/executive" via Icelandic borgarstjóri, "city boss/chief"; Old Norse reykr vík, “smoke bay”)
Reynimelur (from Icelandic melur gravel bed/gravel plain/lyme grass/sand rye grass [Leymus arenarius]/sea lyme grass/small gravel or sand hillock)
Ríkisútvarpið (Broadcasting House, "The National Radio/The State Broadcasting")
Ring Road (Hringvegur, from Old Norse hringr vegr, "circle/ring road/way"; Þjóðvegur, from Old Norse þjóð vegr, "nation/people road/way")
Rögnvaldur Ólafsson (from Old Norse rǫgn valdr, "advice/decision/[divine] power/might might/mighty one/power/pwerful one")
Safnahúsið (from Old Norse safna/samna hús, "to collect/gather house")
Sekur (from Old Norse sekr, “condemned[-to-outlawry]/convicted/forfeited/guilty/outlawed/sentenced[-to-pay]”)
Seltjarnarnes (from Old Norse sel/selr, "[mountain] shed/seal"; tjörn, "small forest/mountain lake/pond/pool/tarn"; nes, "cape/headland/promontory")
Sigríður Eiríksdóttir (June 16, 1894-March 23, 1986, from Old Norse sigr fríðr einn ríkr dóttir, “victory alive/beautiful/beloved/good/peaceful/safe alone/one distinguished/empire/kingdom/mighty/rich daughter")
Sigurdur S. Waage (Nov. 2, 1927-May 18, 2019, from Old Norse sigr vágr vǫrðr, “victory guard bay, inlet” via Icelandic Sigurður Waage)
Skjálfandi (from Old Norse skjalfa, "to quiver/shake/shiver")
Skoda (from Old Norse skoða, "to check out/observe/view/watch via Icelandic Skoða)
Skolavorduna (from Icelandic skóla vörðuna, “school guard”)
Skolavordustigur (from Icelandic skóla vörður stígur, “school guard path” via Skólavörðustígur)
Skorradalur (from Old Norse skorri dalur, "loud one/purring one dale/valley")
Skúlagata (from Old Norse skýla magn/megin, "to protect/screen/shelter might/strength"; for Skúli Magnússon [Dec. 12, 1711-Nov. 9, 1794], Iceland bailiff from 1749 onward)
Smárahverfi (perhaps from archaic Danish smære, "clover" or perhaps from Irish seamair via archaic Icelandic smære and Icelandic smára, "clover, shamrock, white clover [Trifolium repens]"; and Old Norse hverfi, "cluster of farms")
Snorri Egilsson (from Old Norse snerra, "attack/onslaught"; agi, "awe/terror" or egg, "[weapon] edge"?)
Stadarskáli (from Old Norse staðr, "abode/church/city/convent/hesitation/mark/palace/pause/place/print/see/spot/[steel-]elassticity/stop/town"; and skáli, "barn/drinking[-]hall")
Stangarholt (from Old Norse stǫng holt, “standard-pole hillock”)
Steingrímur (from Old Norse steinn grímur, "stone face-/helmet-wearer")
Stöð (from Old Norse stöð, "horse-herd/to stand")
Strax (from German strack, “drunk/straight/taut” via Icelandic strax, "immediately/right away")
Sundlaugavegur (from Old Norse sund laug vegr, "swimming bath/hot-spring/pool road/way")
Sunna Róbertsdóttir (from Old Norse sunna hróðr bjartr dóttir, “fame/glory/honor/praise bright/light/shining sun daughter")
Sveinn Runar Sigurdsson (from Old Norse sveinn rún -arr/herr sigr, "boy/free-servant/lad/young-man secret-lore army victory" via Icelandic Sveinn Rúnar Sigurðsson)
Sverrir (from Old Norse sverri-, "swinging around/troublemaker")
Thingholt (from Old Norse Þing holt, “[legal parliamentary] assembly hillock/rough stony ridge/wood”)
Thórdís Alexándersdóttir (from Old Norse þórr dís, “thunder goddess”; Greek αλεξω ανδρος, “to defend/help man”; and Old Norse dóttir, “daughter”)
Thorvaldur Finnbogason (Dec. 21, 1931-Aug. 3, 1952, from Old Norse þórr valdr finnr bogi, "thunder might/mighty-one/power/powerful-one/ruler Finn/Lapp bow" via Icelandic Þorvald Finnbogason)
Tjarnargata (from Old Norse tjǫrn gata, “lakelet/pond/pool/tarn road/street")
Tjörnin (from Old Norse tjǫrn, “lakelet/pond/pool/tarn")
Tomás (from Aramaic תאומא, "twin")
Tryggvi Rúnar Leifsson (from Old Norse tryggr, “faithful/safe/true/trusty”; rún -arr/herr, “secret army”; leifr, “descendant/heir”)
Valtýr Stefánsson (Jan. 26, 1893-March 16, 1963)
Valur Róbertsson (from Old Norse valr, “falcon”; and hróðr bjartr, “fame/glory/honor/praise bright/light/shining”)
Vesturey (from Old Norse heima austr vestr ey, “at-home east west island”)
Viðey (from Icelandic viður ey, “wood island”; Heimaey, Austurey, Vesturey [from Old Norse heima austr vestr ey, “at-home east west island”])
Viðeyjarkirkja (from Icelandic viður eyja kirkja, “wood island [Christian] church”)
Viðeyjarstofa (from Icelandic viður eyja stofa/stufa, “wood island classroom/living-room/room”)
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir (from Old Norse vig dís finnr bogi dóttir, “war [minor-]goddess Finn/Lapp bow daughter”)
Vikubladid (from Old Norse vika blað, “week plant-leaf” via Icelandic Vikublaðið, “week news”)
visir (from Old Norse vísir, "king, leader, sprout")
(300) dakshina, and the "left/' vcima. The west was called apara, "behind." Now Sariputra and Maha Mogalana were the principal followers of Buddha, and were usually styled his right and left hand disciples. Their ashes thus preserved after death the same positions to the right and left of Buddha which they had themselves occupied in life. 14.Sariputra was the son of the Brahman Tishya, and of the beautiful-eyed Sari or Sarika, who received her name from the resemblance of her eyes to those of a Saras or Cyrus bird. Sariputra, or son of Sari, is his most common name ; but he is also known by the patronymic of Upatishya. The Tibetans call him Sha-ri-hi-bu, or Sari's son. Tishya was the most learned of all the Brahmans at the court of Raja- griha. Sarika herself was a proficient in the four Vedas, and had overcome her brother in disputation. But her son excelled them both; and was much celebrated for his wisdom. His talents, which were attributed to his moral and religious merit in former births,* were so great, that Sakya himself proclaimed! that the " profoundly wise Sariputra was competent to spread abroad the wisdom of Buddha;" and his fellow-disciple Kachhayano declared that a excepting the Saviour of the world, there are no others in exist- tence whose wisdom is equal to one sixteenth part of the profundity of Sariputra."
(301) 15. According1 to the Japanese chronology, this wisest of the disciples of Buddha embraced a monastic life, four years after Sakya's attainment of Buddha- hood, that is in 584 B. c. He, and his fellow-student Maudgalyayana, had attended all the philosophical schools of the day without obtaining conviction, until they heard the preaching of Buddha, when they gave up all and followed him.
16.In a Mongolian wort translated from the Sanskrit, and entitled Uligerun dala'i (the Sea of Parables), we read,* " When Sabiputba learnt that Buddha was bent on entering nirvana, he experienced profound sorrow, and said to himself, f It is soon indeed, and contrary to all expectation, that the Tathagata hath resolved upon entering nirvana j who after him will be the protector and shield of souls and of beings enveloped in darkness V He then said to Buddha, 'It is impossible for me to witness the nirvana of Buddha.' Thrice he repeated these words, when Buddha replied, ' If thou believe thy time come, then do thy will, like all the Khutukhtu (in Sanskrit, Nirmmanhaya, incarnations), who enter the Nirvana of tranquillity/ Sariputra, having heard these words of Buddha, arranged his dress ; and, having a hundred times walked round Buddha, he repeated a great number of verses in praise of him. He then embraced the feet of the latter, placed them thrice upon his head, and joining the palms of his hands, said, ' I have been found worthy to ap-
(302) proach the gloriously accomplished Buddha/ He then worshipped Buddha, and proceeded with his servant^ the monk Yontij to Rajagriha, his native town. When arrived there, he said to Yonti, fGo into the town, into the suburbs, and to the palace of the king1, and to the houses of the high functionaries, and of such as give alms, and thus say to them: "The Kutukhtu Sariputra hath resolved upon en- tering nirvana— ^come and prostrate yourselves before him.'" The monk Yonti executed the orders of his master, went to the places indicated, and thus de- livered his message: ' The Kutukhtu SaripIjtRA hath arrived here ) if you Would visit him^ come with- out delay.' When the king Ajatasatra^ the dis- penser of alms, the great dignitaries, the officers of the army, and the heads of families, heard this an- nouncement, they were all filled With sorrow^ and with heavy hearts said, { Ah ! what will become of us when the second head of the law, the leadef of so many beings, the Kutukhtu SaRiputha shall have entered nirvana! Hurriedly they proceeded towards him, bowing down and saying, ' Kutukhtu! if thou becomest nirvana who shall be our protector,- and that of so many other beings?' Sariputra then addressed them the following words : ' Since all is perishable, the end of all is death. As ye, too, belong to this world of torment, ye, too, will ndt remain long; death Will come and terminate your career. But as you all, in consequence of meritorious works in a former existence, have had the happiness (303) of being; ton in tile World with Buddha, and that too in the human form, do you add other accumulative merits, and accomplish such works as Shall save you from Sansara.' When Sariputra had finished preaching thus to the bystanders the inexhaustible law, and had comforted their spirits with salutary medicaments, they bowed doWn before the Rutukhtu, and each returned to his home. After midnight, SaripuTUA sat in a perfectly erect position ; gathered all the faculties of his soul \ directed these upon one pointj and entered the first Dhytina. Thence he entered the second ; thence the third ; and from the third the four th* From the fourth he passed into the Saniddhi of the births of boundless celestial space ; then into the Samtidhi of the births of complete nihility. From this Samddhi he entered that of 1 neither thinking, nor not thinking f then into that of limitation ; and lastly into Nirvana.
17."When Khourmousda, the king of the Gods, learnt of the Nirvdna of SariPTjtra, he came with several hundreds of thousands in his suite, bearing flowers^ perfumes, and other objects meet for sacrifice. They diffused themselves through the whole space of heaven ) their tears fell like rain ; they scattered their flowers so as to cover the earth, saying, ' Oh ! he whose wisdom was as the depth of the sea, who had passed through all the gates of knowledge, whose musical speech flowed sweetly as a running stream, who was perfect in the fulfilment of every duty, in self contemplation, in all wisdom— the sublime chief of
(304) the doctrine, the excellent Khutulthtu Sariputra — hath too hastily entered nirvana. Who shall suc- ceed the gloriously accomplished Buddha and Tatha- gata to spread ahroad the law?' All the inhabitants of the town and neighbourhood, as soon as they were apprised of the nirvana of Sariputra, came, bearing- much oil, perfumes, flowers, and other things appro- priate for sacrifice. They wept loudly with accents of woe and sorrow, placing upon the ground the objects fit for the sacrifices. Khourmousda, the prince of the Gods, then commanded Vishwamitra to prepare a car of various precious materials for the body of Sariputra. When the car was finished, the corpse of Sariputra was placed thereon in a sitting position, and taken forth to a beautiful plain, all the while the JNagas, the Yakshas, the king, the commanders of the army, the officers, and the whole people, uttering cries of sorrow. There they raised a pile of chandana (sandal) wood. After moistening it with oil and butter, they placed upon it the body of Sariputra, and applied fire. Then all bowed down, and each went to his home. When the fire was completely extinguished, the priest Yonti collected from the ashes the sdrira of his master, and conveyed them, as well as his pot and ecclesiastical dress, to Buddha. He placed these things at the feet of Buddha, announcing, at the same time, the death of his master. When Ananda learnt this from the lips of Yonti, he was much grieved, and said to Buddha, 1 Oh, Buddha ! the first of our band has entered
(305) nirvana; to whom now shall we unbosom ourselves, and whom shall we regard as our protecting- sun?' Buddha replied, e Ananda ! although Sariputra hath entered nirvana, neither the charge of your duties, nor samddhi, nor understandings nor plenary redemption, nor the prajna of plenary redemption, nor the nature of occult properties, hath become so ; moreover, many generations ago Sariputra once be- came nirvana, because he could not endure to see me enter upon nirvana.' "
18.As the funeral pile was formed of chandana, or sandal, it seems highly probable that the two pieces of this fragrant wood, which we found along with Sariputra's relics, must have been taken from the pile. We know that a Tope was built over the charcoal with which Buddha's body was burned, and that the Moriyans of Pipphaliwano celebrated a fes- tival* in honour of their much-prized acquisition. From this account there would seem to be nothing improbable in supposing that fragments of sandal- wood from the funeral pyre of Sariputra should have been held in almost equal estimation.
19.Mogalana, or Maha Mogalana as he was usually called to distinguish him from others of the same name, was the son of the Brahman Mudgala. His proper name was Kalika or Kolita, but he was generally called by his patronymic Maudgal- yayana, or Mogalana. Csoma de Korosf calls
(306) him Mongalyana, that is one of Mongol extraction ; but his true Sanskrit name is Maudgalyayana.
20.The relics of these two famous disciples of Buddha would appear to have been almost as widely- scattered as those of Buddha himself : for we found another portion of their relics enshrined together in No. 2 Tope at Satdhara. We learn also from Fa Hian that at Mathura* there were Topes both of She-li-foe (or Sariputra) and of Mou-lian (or Mo- galana), while we know that the former died at Raja- griha, where a Tope was erected over his ashes which was still standing in 400 A. D. 21.It is not possible to fix the date of this Tope, more nearly than between 550 and 250 B. c. Sari- putra died a few years beforef Sakya's attainment of nirvana, in 543 b. o. It is therefore just possible that the Tope may have been built as early as 550 B. c. ; and if there was any proof that Buddhism had extended so far at this early period, I should have no hesitation in ascribing the Tope to the middle of the sixth century before our era. In the Tibetan Duha£ it is recorded that Katyayana, and five hundred other monks, were despatched by Sakya to convert the King of Ujain to Buddhism. This would seem to show that the religion of Sakya had been estab- lished as far as Ujain, even during his lifetime ; and that the omission of Ujain amongst the names of the
(307) celebrated cities which had witnessed various acts in the life of Buddha, is to be accounted for by the fact that the people of Ujain were converted by Katya- yana the disciple of Buddha, and were never visited by the Great Teacher himself. At the time of the Second Synod, in b. c. 443, the fraternity of Avanti (or Ujain) furnished no less than eighty orthodox Bhikshus to assist the holy Yaso in suppressing- the schisms of the community of Vaisali. As conversion must have preceded the establishment of fraternities and monasteries, the propagation of Buddhism throughout Ujain may be dated with certainty in 500 B. c, and with probability even as high as 550 B. c, during the lifetime of Sakya.
22.On the other hand, it seems to me more likely that the relics of Sariputra were all deposited in the Tope at Rajagriha ; and that they remained there undisturbed until the time of Asoka ; who, when he distributed the relics of Buddha over India, would most probably have done the same with the relics of Sariputra and of Maha Mogalana. I have already stated that the still existing gateway of this Tope is of the same date as those of the Great Tope, that is, the early part of the first century of our era. The railing I attribute to the age of Asoka, at which period I suppose it probable that this Tope was built, although it is quite possible that it may date as early as the middle of the sixth century before our era. The great Topes at Sanchi and at Satdhara were built principally of brick : and these I presume to beV (308) the oldest of the Bhilsa Topes, most of the others, which are of stone, were certainly of the age of Asoka.
(309) CHAPTER XXII. SONARI TOPES.
1.The little village of Sonari is situated on a low- spur of a sandstone hill, between the Betwa and Besali Rivers, six miles to the south-west of Sanchi, and about twenty-one miles to the north-east of Bhupal. The name is only the spoken form of Suvarnari, or the " golden wheel/' which is a symbol of Buddha as the Maha Chakravartti Baja. The traditions of the Buddhists say that when the age of man attains four thousand years, there appears a Xing of the Golden Wheel * " who is born in a royal family, and obtains supreme dignity on succeeding his father and being* baptized in the water of the four oceans. For fifteen days he bathes in perfumed water, and fasts- then ascends an elevated tower, surrounded by his minis- ters and courtiers. Suddenly there appears a golden wheel in the east, shedding a brilliant light, and advancing to the place where the King is standing. If the King would proceed towards the East, the
(310) 310 THE BHILSA TOPES.
wheel turns in that direction, and the King, accom- panied by his troops, follows. Before the wheel are four genii, who serve as guides. Wherever it stops, there does the King in like manner. The same thing takes place in the direction of the south, the west, and the north — wherever the wheel leads, the King follows; and where it halts, he does the same. In the four continents he directs the people to follow the ten right ways, that is to say, not to kill, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, not to be double tongued, not to calumniate, not to speak with elaborate refinement, not to abandon one's-self to lusts, not to entertain anger and hatred, and not to have immodest looks. He is called the King of the Golden Wheel, or the Holy King turning the wheel ; and he possesses the seven precious things, of which the first is ' the treasure of the Golden Wheel.' " This wheel has a thousand rays. The monarch who possesses it is called u the Holy King who causes the wheel to turn," because from the moment of his possessing it, the wheel turns and traverses the universe, according to the thoughts of the King. Other wheels of silver, copper, and iron, are also mentioned j but they are all nearly the same symbols of Buddha.
2.From this explanation of the name, it seems probable that Sonari once possessed a golden wheel, which must have been elevated on a pillar, as shownin so many of the Sanchi bas-reliefs. A pillar of this kind is described by Fa Hian, as still standing at (311) Shewei or Sravasti in Gudh, when he visited the place in 400 A. D.
"There are” says he, " two pavilions and two stone pillars on the pillar to the left, is executed the figure of a wheel - on that to the right is placed the figure of an ox." There is; however, no trace of a pillar now at Sonari; but the polished cylindrical shafts of these columns could be so readily converted into sugar-mills, that their entire disappearance offers no proof of their non-existence.
3.The Sonari Topes are situated on the top of the hill, about one mile to the south of the village.* To the north, east, and south of the Topes, the hill extends for some distance almost level, but to the westward it is broken into narrow ravines, which give rise to clear springs that once furnished the fraternity of Sonari with drinking water. The hill is covered with trees and low thorny jungul and the place is now as wild and desolate as it was once cheerful and flourishing when the hymn of praise was chanted by several thousand voices.
4.The Great Tope at Sonari is situated in the midst of a square court, 240 feet each side. In the southwest corner there is a solid square mass of masonry, from 12 to 15 feet in height, and 36 feet on each side. In the northeast corner there is a flight of steps, 4^ feet wide, leading to the top. The object of this building and of similar structures at Satdhara puzzled me very much, until I had seen the ruins at (312) Bhojpur, amongst which there is a very large building of the same description, but in a more perfect state. As this was undoubtedly a temple, I presume that the Sonari structure was only the basement or terrace of a Buddhist temple.
5.The Tope itself* is a solid hemisphere, 48 feet in diameter, of dry stones, without either cement or mud. This is raised above the terrace on a cylin- drical plinth 4 feet in height. The terrace itself is 5|- feet broad by 6^- feet in height. The Tope is nearly perfect, not more than 6 feet of its entire height having been lost. It was once surmounted by a square Buddhist railing, of which only a few frag- ments now remain. The pillars were rather less than 3 feet in height, with a section of 6^ inches face, by 6 inches side. There were three rails, each 8 inches deep by 3^ inches thick. The railing was all formed of white sand-stone, from the Udayagiri hill, while the Tope itself was built of the claret-coloured sand- stone of the Sonari hill. (See figs. 2 and 3, Plate XXIII.)
6.The base of the Tope was surrounded by a Buddhist railing, 4 feet 8 inches in height, of which nothing now remains but a few broken pillars, and two or three small fragments of coping. The pillars were 3 feet 8J inches in height, with a section of 9|- inches face by 8 inches side. There were three railings, each 15 inches long, 11 inches broad, and 3£ inches thick. The coping was different from that (313) of the Sanchi railings. It was 11^ inches in height, and the upper half had a projection of 2 inches on the outer face. The pillars were ornamented on the outer faces with medallions: of full and half lotus flowers, as shown in the fragment, Plate IX. This railing was erected in the same manner as those at Sanchi, by the gifts of many different individuals. Two of these simple records still remain (see Plate XXIII, figs. 8 and 9)
Fig. 8. - Ayapa&analiasa Atevas(ino) Dhama Gutasa Navakamanasa ddnam. "Gift of Dharma Gupta, the new man (». e., the regenerated) the pupil of Akyya Prasannaka." Fig. 9. - (A)yapamnakasa Atevasino Sagha Rakhitasa adnam. "Gift of Sangha Eakshita, the pupil of Aryya Prasannaka."
7.In No. 13 of the inscriptions from the great Tope at Sanchi, we have a record of a gift made by Abyya Prasannaka himself, who is there called a Bhikshu, or mendicant monk. As the name does not appear again amongst nearly three hundred inscriptions, it seems highly probable that the Bhikshu of the one record and the teacher of the others are the same person. This would fix the date of the Tope in the latter end of Asoka's reign, coeval with that of the neighbouring Tope, No. 2, which will presently be described.
8.A shaft was sunk down the centre of this Tope, and at a depth of little more than 5 feet a large slab was reached, which on being raised disclosed the relic-chamber strewn with fragments of stone boxes. The (314) fragments were carefully collected and afterwards put together, but no trace of bone or of other relic was discovered. The largest of the relic-boxes is a cylinder 4 inches in height and upwards of 8 inches i breadth, covered by a domed lid of the same fine sandstone having a rise of more than 2 inches. Inside this was a smaller stone box of the same description; but only 5 \ inches in diameter and 3| inches in total height. Inside this, again, there was a third stone box or casket only If inch in diameter, and of a different shape, being nearly spherical with a pinnacled top. Lastly, inside this there was a small crystal casket only seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. This little casket must once have enshrined some minute portion of bone, or perhaps a single tooth of the holy Buddha; but, after the most careful search of the chamber, no trace of any relic was discovered. As the relic-chamber was near the summit of the Tope, the probability is that the villagers had opened it long before, and that when the relic-boxes were broken the minute fragment of bone was dropped into the chamber, and after the lapse of years had become mingled with its kindred dust.
(315) CHAPTER XXIII. NO. 2 TOPE. - SONARI.
1.The second of the Sonari Topes* is situated north by west from the Great Tope at a distance of three hundred and fifteen feet. The bearing 103 deg. W., is so very nearly the same as that between Nos. I. and II. Topes at Sanchi, that I cannot help suspecting that there must have been some peculiar significance in this particular angle. The Sanchi angle is 109 deg\, and the mean between the two is 106 deg. At Sanchi the line is prolonged to the eastward to a lofty temple. At Sonari also it is extended in the same direction to No. 3 Tope which bears 102 E. from the Great Tope.
2.No.2 Tope is situated in an enclosure 165 feet square. It is a solid hemisphere of dry stone, 27^ feet in diameter, raised on a cylindrical plinth 4J feet in height. The terrace is 5 feet 8 inches broad, and 12 feet in height. This is gained by a double flight of steps each 20 feet long, which meet at a landing 6J feet long by 6 feet broad. No trace of railings or (316) THE BHILSA TOPES. pinnacles could be discovered; but the Tope is otherwise tolerably perfect, not more than 5\ feet having been lost.
3.A shaft was sunk down the centre of the Tope, which at 7 feet reached the slab forming' the lid of the relic-chamber. The chamber itself was 1^ foot in depth, and its bottom, where the relics were deposited, was on the same level as the base of the hemisphere.
4.In the chamber was found a large steatite vase profusely but coarsely ornamented with elephants and horses, and indescribable winged animals of rude execution. The vase was covered by a plain lid, secured by lac. Inside this vase were found five relic-caskets, each containing portions of human bone, with an inscription recording the name of the person whose relics were enshrined therein.
5.No.1 Relic-casket is a round flat box of crystal, 2 inches in diameter, and sixtenths of an inch in height. As the crystal was too hard a substance to be inscribed, the name and title of the holy man were carved on a small piece of stone three quarters of an inch long and only half an inch broad. The inscription, which is engraved on both sides, is one of the most interesting of these discoveries: Sapurisasa Goti- i c -sa Dadabhisdputasa Sava Hemavata $ \ -ra d&y&dasa. "(Relics) of the emancipated Gotiputra, the brother of religion amongst the Dardabhisdras of the Heniawanta." As a full explanation of this legend has been given in my account of the different religious missions (317) despatched by Asoka to different countries bordering upon India, nothing more need be added in this place.
6.No.2 Relic-casket is of a dark mottled steatite, nearly hemispherical in shape, with a flat bottom and pinnacled top, similar to the smallest of the stone caskets found in No. 1 Tope. The inscription is engraved on the outside of the lid. Sapurisasa Majhimasa Kodiniputasa. "(Relics) of the emancipated Majhima, the son of Kodini'.' Majhima is the Sanskrit Madhyama and Kodini isperhaps the vernacular form of Kohudinya, which is the name of one of the eighty principal disciples of Buddha. In No. 2 Tope at Sanchi the relics of a second, or of the same Majhima were found, but in the inscription the patronymic is omitted. As therelics of Kasyapagotra were found in both Topes, it seems probable that the two Majhimas were the same person, who was placed at the head of the Hemawanta Mission after the meeting of the Third Synod in B.C. 241. His father Kodini was probably a descendant of the great Kohudinya the companion of Buddha. 7.No.3 Relic-casket is similar in shape and size to No. 2, and is of the same dark-coloured and mottled steatite. The inscription, engraved around the outside of the lid, is Sapurisasa Kotiputasa K&sapa Ootasa Sava Hemavat&chariyasa. "(Relics) of the emancipated son of Koti, Kasyapagotra, the missionary to the whole Hemawanta." (318) The relics of Kasyapa were also found in No. 2 Tope at Sanchi with the same inscription recording his mission to the Hemawanta, hut omitting* the patronymic.
8.No.4 Relic-casket is similar to Nos. 2 and 3. The inscription engraved on the top of the lid is Sapurisasa Kosikiputasa." (Relics) of the emancipated Kosikiputha." Another portion of Kosiki's relics was found in No.2 Tope at Sanchi.
9.No.5 Relic-casket is of black steatite, and is shaped somewhat like a pear. The outside is ornamented by a succession of triangles, alternately plain and crossed. The inscription occupies the plain triangles on the lower half of the casket. Sapurisa(sa) Alabagirasa." (Relics) of the emancipated Alabagiba." Allakappo or Alawi was one of the eight cities which obtained a portion of Buddha's relics, and perhaps the name of Alabagira may have been derived from the city. Relics of Apagira were found in No. 2 Tope at Sanchi; and I suspect that the two names are the same; the letter ^J Z, having been inadvertently omitted in the Sanchi inscription.
10.The erection of this Tope, which contained the relics of no less than four of the Buddhist teachers whose ashes had already been discovered in No. 2 Tope at Sanchi, must evidently be referred to the (319) same period, towards the end of the third century before our era, by which time all the eminent missionaries employed by Asoka for the propagation of his religion must have closed their earthly career.
OTHER TOPES AT SONARI. 11.The remaining Topes at Sonari are all of small dimensions. The most perfect were Nos. S, 5, and 8; but even these had been opened before, and on the removal of a little rubbish in No. 3; the broken chamber was discovered quite empty. Nos. 4; 6, and 7, were mere circular foundations. No. 3 has a diameter of 15^ feet, with a present height of 6 feet. The bottom of the chamber is 3 feet above the ground. No. 5 is a nearly perfect little Tope. It is 14 feet 4 inches in diameter at base with a height of 9 feet. The upper diameter is 10 feet 4 inches. The terrace is 2\ feet in breadth, and 1^ foot in height. Its whole height could not have been more than 12|- feet. No. 8 is very much ruined. It has a diameter of 12|- feet, with a terrace 3 feet broad and 3 feet high.
The Arboricultural Association Women in Arboriculture Working Group presents a special International Women’s Day Webinar 'Tree careers' with Cecily Withall and Louise Hackett. Cecily Withall - Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew - Arboriculture Team Cecily is part of Kew’s ‘Tree Gang’, a team of seven arborists (including two apprentices) who manage over 12,000 trees at Kew Gardens in London. Louise Hackett Louise is the Sherwood Treescape Lead at the Woodland Trust, focused on ancient and veteran trees working with Partners and Landowners. Sharon Durdant-Hollamby Sharon is an Expert Witness, chartered arboriculturist and Director of Sharon Hosegood Associates Ltd. Following thirteen years’ experience as a tree officer, Sharon went into private practice in 2005 where she began in private practice as managing director of a multi-disciplinary environmental consultancy, for eight years. She formed Sharon Hosegood Associates in 2014, which is an arboricultural consultancy specialising in trees in relation to development. She is the immediate past president of the Institute of Chartered Foresters and a Fellow of both the Institute of Chartered Foresters and the Arboricultural Association. She is the host of Tree Lady Talks podcast.
Emma Gilmartin host, Mandy Maynard, Louise Hackett, Sharon Durclant-Hollamby, Cecil Withall
TreeCareers an international women’s day webinar with Cecily Withall, Sharon Durdant-Hollamby and Louise Hackett
Cecily Withall Kew Gardens Tree management within the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew climbing arborist Kew horticultural diploma royal botanic gardens Edinburgh 2017-2019 2-year apprenticeship kew arboricultural unit 2019-2021 first female arborist employed since 1980-2021 awarded young arboricultural professional of the year 2023
Apprenticeship emergency first aid at work, safe use of brushwood chipper, traffic management nrswa unit 002 signing, lighting, guarding, chainsaw maintenance, cross utting timber using chainsaw, felling nd processing trees up to 380 mm, accessing tree using rope and harness, aerial tree rescue ops, aerial cutting trees using freefall techniques, safe use mobile elevated work platform, use chain
Our day to day 12000 trees 350 acre site gps mapping system, history of works, dead wooding, ariel inspections, reductions and removals
Conservation area risk rating, duty of care, zoned areas, high frequency, honeypot areas numbered 1, 2, 3 zones 1 high priority 2 summer frequency 3 conservation protective public kept away Turners oak q ilex and q robur holm/English, quercus x turneri pseudoturneri 1798 the great storm of 1987 changed way kew viewed compaction and tree health 15 million trees destroyed nationwide 700 trees lost at kew in single night
Holistic tree care 2 million visitors a y and rising, high footfall, heavy compaction, thames soil, biochar and inert clay injections, compressed air breaks soil pan
Help us identify stability and longevity of our collection to help us make sometimes-difficult decisions; resistograph on ash with inonotus hispidus driven by drill motor long thin needle inserted into wood log or structural wood beam to gain idea of density often to id areas of substandard structural integrity such as decay or cavitation; picus sonic tomography quercus frainetto with maripilus brackets failed dec 2022 instrument detect decay in trees by taking readings of velocity of soundwaves through stem from several sensors installed with small nails around trunk
Future tree selection through climate modelling rainfall halved in last 40 years, future proof our aging collection, climate matching, genetic material
Kew 2020-2090 climate mapping for future used as part of kews succession plan of living collections celtis australis, parrotia persica, quercus castanelfolia, quercus robur, tillia cordata, tillia platyphyllos, zelkova carpinifolia cooler wetter warmer drier
Mat vs cmi distribution for multiple species
LOUISE HACKETT Sherwood treescape lead woodland trust
Sciryuda gough map of the british isls c 1400 woods that belong to the jarl?
Royal forests 1327-1336 royal forest subject to forest law
Sherwood treescape national character area 49 sherwood
Historic habitat loss across Sherwood 1774 23560 ha, 1835 4490h, 1885 2395, 1920 3180, 2013 905
The major oak one of famous Sherwood trees named after major illustrating trees historically ka queen oak
The landscape studios of hayman rooke (1723- Emily Sloan
Robin hood’s larder aka shambles oak
Greendale oak, seven sisters oak
Parliament oak rooke illustrated 1790, 1843, 1892, 1975, 2021, 2022 compaction
Legend landscape scale map showing distribution of ancient and veteran trees across sherwood nca showing protected area designations
Highlights from green recovery challenge fund project systematic surveys over 2500 h 4 percent of treescape, over 700 ancient veteran trees new to ati, management recommendations taken forward across 130 h of ancientV Ancient and veteran tree assessment training, wood pasture creation and restoration
Vine trapping for saproxylic beetles rarest beetle found in survey in good numbers at haywood oaks in 9 of 12 traps larvae develop in decaying heartwood of ancient oak where through predate weevil larvae such as
The state of nature in Sherwood report 2023 report commissioned by Sherwood habitat strategy group
Annual loss of habitat some cannot be undone earliest recruitment of next generrtion trees with high habitat value 100 plus years of no habitat
Current priorities continue develop better understanding of what have and condition, explore ways bridge gap, support quality habitat creation
SHARON DURDANT-HOLLAMBY volunteering 16yo conservation tcv trees for cities the tree council woodland trust national trust the Mersey forest more from trees the land trust Birmingham treepeople forestry England trees for the future observatree treeaid city of trees charities local groups
Tree officer after volunteering and degree
Ato association of tree officers ltoa London tree officers association ntoc national tree officers conference 2024 the municipal tree officers association the voice of municipal arboriculture mtoa institute of chartered foresters
Green infrastructure enforcement officer
Tree life city & guilds Jackie.hough@cityandguilds.com myrscough college institute of chartered foresters chartered environmentalist status Scottish school of forestry uhi inverness Tree surgery
Arboricultural consultant
At a glance guide to aid development design retention essential, retention essential subject to further investigation of tree condition, retention desirable, moderate
Landscape and visual impact assessment, ecology, arboriculture, topography soil and geology, flood risk assessment, archaeology, highways/infrastructure to community healthy sustainable places to national policy and legislation, local policy and strategies, policies, developer aspirations
Science
TreeRadar scanning cart has 400 mhz antennae
Top down view
Ancient tree forum from 1480 tree roots still being recorded at 23 m
Internal decay assessment tomography map decay with n oninvasive methods
Governance celebrating inspirational women in trade associations 2024 powerlist
Community
Sustainable use of timber
Communication
Tree lady talks 114 episodes 35000 plus downloads 50 plus countries reached
Essex quality review panel
The future must be green let’s work together
QUESTIONS Kimberley plan with what do with downed kew trees mulched for gardens, kids trail for cecily; additional water water reservoirs watering kew reservoirs for cecily; farmland and private-land trees for louise; for Sharon how stay positive in construction; golf-course tree louise; Cecily surrounded by farms so land-based studies, Sharon tree climber and tree surgeon inspirational arboriculture; tree-related books Cecily plant glossary hank beentje, louise if women rose rooted Sharon blackie, Sharon principles of tree hazard assessment and management (by David Longfellow?) well over 250 live youtube within week 243 pm
Advances in our understanding of the dynamic forces applied to a tree during removal operations: results and techniques to mitigate risk of failure Mar 19, 2024 12:00 PM Central Time 819 3619 2298 This presentation outlines results from recent experiments focused on exploring concepts in both physics and tree biomechanics and how we can incorporate these to improve safety for those working in the arboriculture setting. These studies specifically examined the distribution of force through the tree during dismantling options, and questions if biomechanical models developed on wind and gravitational inputs into tree crown architecture would map to removal operations. Our results have direct implications for working arborists, and help to develop mitigation measures to reduce loading (stress/strain) in the stem Matt Follett TreeFund Webinar Series Extension Alabama A&M & Auburn Universities
Paul Putman TREE Fund and Tour des Trees 25-mile ride CT Arboretum 125 anniversary of ISA until 8/30 Support TREE Fund your way on your timeride run walk swim your own Tour des Trees, virtually Your tax-deductible donation to TREE Fund
Heath Hupke name, certification number to ISA, SAF
Matt Follett PhD candidate biomechanics Safe Arborist Techniques Fund SATF#19-604R applicant but main research interests trees, wind, pruning main interests
Climbing arborist 25-plus years on rope strong interest practical science of arboriculture tree mechanics candidate
La chaire sur le controle de la croissance des arbres
Projects de recherche 6 axes de recherche stabilite biomecanique des arbres Matt Follett
Axe 2 controle precoce de la cime des arbres troisieme etape deviation des deux branches maitresses approache par tueurage et elagage
Axe 3 application du LiDAR terrestre suivi de la croissance
3 chapter discussion blocks vs rigging rings effect of friction at upper rigging point, maintaining damping in negative rigging effect of retention of limbs below upper rigging point, notch type
Chapter 1 blocks or rigging rings
Who what why traditional rigging blocks at upper anchor point cause multiplication effect on said anchor point rigging rings and thimbles popular with belief introduced friction mitigates multiplication factor but does it Matt Follett MSc Bastien La
Project design in-line Force meter Linear transducer (strain) Accelerometer Rising rate inclined plane produces similar deceleration as ground-persons increasing grip
Repeatable test need controlled way to let piece run, rising rate similar to how ground person would bring piece to stop
Sensors strain or stress gauges which measure elongation of marginal fibres are well developed Expensive Commercial compo
These V? robust, weatherproof and function and combined both sensing types in same package, The linear
Lasers? Short test using pull and release event on 40cm diameter poplar, lasers spaced at 2 m intervals 1, 3, 5m above ground level
Project site live but declining ash Fraxinus due to EAB, 45cm DSH, 7.5m to notch and back-cut, some decay at base
Rigging gear 9/16” Stable braid new used one day to break in, X-Rigging
Each drop used plywood hinge to align piece and ensure consistent flight path
Then piece hoisted back up, each device tested 3 times, distance between hinge and anchor point ranged from 32-36cm
Results data capture at 50hz, top graph is strain gauge note in mm each grid line .01mm, lower graph is load at portawrap in Kg of force
If falling piece impacted stem would see big harmonic motion, using data from accelerometer in falling piece can see this impact, in this case piece loading lead end of rope with about 6 G (1080 Kg, 13 G spike when impacts stem but this is not into rope see
Arborist block 1 peak 0.01193806 large ring 1
Results lasers? Large impact loads moved lasers (need better)
In slow motion see initial strain then piece impacts stem
Basal laser, top laser
Clarify next fwew slides green lead rope yellow porta rope red anchor point rising ate inclined plane produces similar deceleration as ground-persons increasing grip in-line force meter
Porta rope yellow basic peak Portawrap load compared, all rings routinely saw approximately one-half load compared to block at Portawrap
Anchor point red two together, using accelerometer data can effectively calculate load on rope between upper anchor and falling piece, then combine Portawrap load with accel data to get approximation of anchor load
Initial strain peak 1/3 reduction in stress on stem?
Discussion lead rope green, gear progressed but still need healthy dose of reality for energy transfer in system, rely on experience to know what feels better in tree but have no experience riding piece down (I hope) so can not anticipate that, for all good of Safebloc there non-significant difference between lead rope load with block arb block double ring large ring safebloc rigging point
Conclusions added friction of rigging rings appears reduce stress on supporting stem in negative rigging scenario if piece allowed to run, best way manage load on lead line still to manage mass x distance equation
Chapter 2 maintaining damping in tree during rigging operations repeated test running rope scenario similar sensing apparatus question what amount of lower lateral limbs
Help avoid this
However not clear if reduces peak stress, does it simply damp system with stem still seeing same extent of bending big tall poplar 2005
Damping spatz et al 2007 james et al 2006 each limb damping spatz small douglas fir frequency decay time damping james main trunk branches own frequency domain
Back to Windsor park another ash tree, 30 cm DSH, 14 meters tall, total mass 854 kg, systematically remova limbs, work way up tree, repeatedly dropping same “top”
Remove small
Each remaining limb accelerometer placed at periphery, triggered
Main stem also had accelerometer installed, as did falling piece once again protected in drilled hole, piece of elm Ulmus pumila used
As wellas reliable strain gauges and load cell mounted at base
Ready to start experiment, device used align tall slender piece, ensure consistent flight path
Each scenario repeated 3 times, next limb in series then removed, repeated drops again
One minor incident safety note, misclipped sling caused lowering line become disconnected from sled, safety umbrella not load rated, no data harmed yes that’s my computer flying through air Thankfully found stand alone screen and data saved
Excrpt of allometry data top part 108 mass kg, limb 6 18, repeat piece 50
Results original top, full tree with pseudo top test piece strain almost 50 percent more?
Full tree, 5 limbs, 2 limbs, 1 limb, stem only strain mm portawrap load kg, time in seconds
Each scenario 3 successful tests with full tree having four, average strain within box, significant difference between one limb remaining and stem only p less than 0.001, see 20% reduction in strain leaving one limb, 35 reduction leaving 2 limbs
As stem strain goes up portawrap load goes down clearly putting more energy in stem neither created or destroyed, strain put into tree less energy into rope
Peak ash in montreal, try avoid climbing, still using damping practices
Mass x distance equation mass weight of object, distance of fall DoF how far falls 2x center of mass to anchor point distance, initial center of mass, anchor point, resultant center of mass, 100 kg 0.5 m approx. 500 joules
E=mgh m150 kg g 9.8m/s2 h6.5, estimate at portawrap 450kg, M=FL m=900 kg x 17m M=15,500nm; E=mgh m160 kg g 9.8m/s2 h3.5 E=5500J, estimate at portawrap 350kg M=FL m700 kg x 12 m M=84—nm More data same results
Discussion
Chapter 3 the new one still in progress notch type
Project credits Kim Bannon UQAM, Nicolas Picard Simply Trees, Matthew Beatt
Why the single stem focus? Direct and in
Why western hemlock regionally known for sketchiness, ra
Western hemlock looper moth Lambdina fiscellaria lugubrosa drought heat
Why falling cuts (notches)? Relevant research short supply, arborist opi
So what are we going to do examine force
Basic experimental dsign spatial sensor acceleromter/gyroscope, lin
Notch types birds mouth humbolt open face
Site Vancouver
Prep time
Terrain/site challenges
Pluck test provides know strain for given force input during pull, provides tree damping properties after release
Pluck test rope load strain x rope load y=171.
Then we three tops
Wood mass
Here’s some data
Some descriptives we did ok on consistency back cut depth notch depth stem diameter
Ou trees stable base spatial sensor, upper
Results strain in direction of notch fall
Results tree 12
Results length of piece initial push back kg/f
Results length of piece just humbolt initial push back
Results push back forward force type of notch 13 c
Perceived push back real thing first major motion of stem in opposite direction of falling piece,
Secondary results some basic modeling
5m=25kg of back force 55 lbs, 50 k forward force 110, 1500nm rotational torque 1100 ft/lbs
Below halfway point effect of lever arm (length of stem) diminishes 5m=25kback force 55 lbs, 50 k forward 110, 1500nm torque 1100 ft/lbs
City of north Vancouver
157 pm presentation ended
Q1 What type rigging lines used during test Stable grade consistent not lot of stretch limited variance
Q2 personal opinion recommendation safer rigging systems reins? Not good with stretch blocks better reins negative block winch
Q3 height and spread usable reduce length reduce lever reduce load further down
Q4 chapter 3 notch to reduce treetop movement open 90degree notch lets piece fall continuously potential into kinetic energy opener notch more forwardbending moment smaller notch less energy input from falling piece but still need to check trajectory
203pm end questions next webinar may?
521-734-387 UMass Extension Amherst UMass Extension Urban Forestry Today R3/21/24 noon-1pmET They’re Coming: The Disease & Insect Pests of the 2024 Growing Season Brian Eshenaur NYS IPM Program Cornell University
Invasive pests of concern 2024
spotted lanternfly invasive planthopper native to asia, feeds on 100-plus plant species us, preferred host tree of heaven ailanthus altissima, black walnut willow red maple grapes not conifers
introduced to nr esp pa in pelletized brooks county pa
spotted lanternfly reported distribution eastern us updated 1/16/2024
life cycle egg laying sep-dec, eggs oct-june, hatch and first instar may-june, second instar June-july, third instar June-july, fourth instar jul-sep red, adults jul-dec
spotted lanternflies exploding across ny and nj they’re spotted lanternfly make its way to the Hudson valley, ny post sex-crazed lanternfly invasion
slf on snl sat night live
spotted don’t bite, don’t sting, aren’t structural pests, survive indoors 2 days, not problem most trees but ailanthus dieback, die yr after yr
dead vineyard pa due to spotted feeding
like feed on grape vine as trees senesce lose leaves because grape vines still leaves, sugars
spotted feed on 100-plus species but strongly prefers tree of heaven with access to tree of heaven lays 7 times number eggs, begin laying eggs wks earlier
egg masses often first appear sep 20 equinox, associated with daylight?
Egg masses check belongings when traveling, scrape egg masses into bag to destroy
Egg hatching gray to quickly white-spotted black
First to third instar 1/8 inch to ¾ inch long
Fourth instar ¾ inch long
Adults 1 inch long
How many spotted see on tree trunk red maple sometimes camouflaged more protrusion than color
How slf feed feeds on plant sap through piercing-sucking mouthpart, excretes honeydew (sugar water) as feeds because need proteins
Swarm feeding no chewing fruit leaves drizzle honeydew
Honey dew and sooty mold sep-oct tree canopy honeybees yellowjackets like, slippery, unattractive
How moving around 4 mph, clumsy fliers most due to hitchhikers, human activity, anything out of quarantine zone for all life stages, adults in, egg mass laid hatched
Slf invasive species doesn’t bite sting but economic impact nys agriculture nys ipm outreach & education
Slf Lycorma delicatula
Mgmt. tools and tactics traps destroy
Traps for monitoring than for catching, circle trap nymphs adults climbing up caught in bags, sticky trap sticky inside, yellow bands with screens vs prey eating slf by bug barrier, new for egg mass capture because protected surface made of shingles
First tool stop spead
Insecticides all stages, pesticide products labeled, inse
Entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana eric Clifton batkoa major
Top 5 bird predators chicken, cardinal, catbird, blue jay, tufted titmouse top 5 arthropod predators paying mantis, yellow jacket, orbweaver spider, wheel bug
Fish bass, goldfish, African cichlid, bluegill sunfish, green sunfish, koi, m osquito fish, sunfish, trout
Reptiles amphibians frog toad garter snake brownsnake
Mammals dogs cats squirrel
BOX TREE MOTH boxwoods resist deer feeding
Box tree moth damage several generations 1 growing season
Early infestations in canopy interior
Btm native e asia, Europe 2006, near Toronto 2018, wny 2021 only known host na boxwood
Nys ag mkts appears moths flown or blown into area from anada 8/18/21 fly 5 mi on own
Ne distribution btm 2024 ny counties with infestations cayuga erie genesee Monroe Niagara orleans Oswego wayne MA cape cod area MI OH
Michigan and ohio btm damage sw oh
Btm first damage caterpillars moth short time
Life cycle cydalima perspectalis about 45 days females clusters 5-30 eggs, eggs hatch 5 days, caterpillars 7 larval instars 2 wks, caterpillars pupate after another 2 wks, pupa emerge as adult moths 1 wk later
Egg mass under leaves not recognizable but tiny there 3 days
Caterpillars feed lower-leaf tissue so little discoloration but upper-side intact so look for frass droppings webbing
Foliage to stems to death in 1 season because shrub can’t put out new foliage
Overlapping generations because not all synchronized
Hibernaculum
Btm cydalima perspectalis cornell ipm exotic insect fact sheet
Repeated insecticide applications
Boxwood blight knowledge center btm
Alternatives to boxwood 6 possible substitutes such as bayberry dwarf hinoki cypress inkberry holly sky pencil holly
BEECH LEAF DISEASE American and European beeches
Lake county oh on lake erie shore first seen 2012 dieback natives
Nematodes litylenchus crenatae subsp mccannii
Raised area, different colorations because nematodes difficult cross leaf veins
Leaf beech disease nematode lityenchus crenatae subsp mccanii bauchan and li ngdbl
5 mos progression bld symptoms no increase number bands over growing season may 13-nov 15
Healthy vs diseased leaf cross-section carta et all, in press
By 2019 from county to states to Canada dec 2023
Dark areas with nematode inside leaves best when looking from below light coming through
Stunted leathery necrotic leaves
Thinning canopy to dieback
How stop?
Bld 2024 nursery stock, younger trees die quicker, survive cold climates; control acephate? Emamectin benzoate? Potassium
Journal environmental horticulture 3/14/2024 exploring novel management methods
Bld 2024 fluopyram? Vector management? (not acephate emamectim next)
Questions vectors insects birds, where from, how move states, how spread within tree, how stop looks different from japan
ELM ZIGZAG SAWFLY aproceros leucopoda hymenoptera ezs or ezzs, exclusively elm, young larvae zigzag pattern feeding gallery leaves
Timeline Europe 2003 s Quebec 2020 va 2021 st Lawrence co ny 2022 2023
Distribution nys 8/14/2023
Life stage ID 4 generations yearly Canada, 6 gen yr Europe overwinter cocoons adults 7-8mm long shiny black bodies dark brown wings yellow legs 1 wk; larvae 2 mm hatch grown to 10-11 mm over 2-3 wks befoe pupating one cocoon type loosespun netlike elm
Impact defoliation significant all elms Siberian native foret
Ezs all elms susceptible less commona dutch elm disease elm relative popular street tree zelkova not susceptible multiple generations yr defoliate
Management most healthy recover sporadic defoliation so mgmt. not always necessary low level natural biocontrol already exists insecticides effective beauvaria bassiana labeling key
1249pm QUESTIONS systemics btm moth no, stomach poisons caterpillar;
slf kills by overwhelming grape vines dk but removing sugars so cells wont’s winter rupture overwintering;
ailanthus proactive remove? Reserves to regrow if cut down so injure trunk herbicide during growing season kills or repeated mowing shoots regrowing;
hardwoods, planting new trees such as maples, urban plantings slf, need not avoid maple sugar maple more resistant, red maple dieback not kill;
contaminate maple-sugar production? But sugar maple low priority feeding late in yr before tree tapped;
beech natural resistance to bld? Native more susceptible than European so no?;
beech bark disease correlation bld? No correlation, healthy and weakened get, another microbe? Bacteria involved;
zigzag sawfly cold hardiness range exposure? Canada northern ny so expected wide range;
bt for boxwoods? Yes most effective when caterpillars small benign insects not feeding on foliage, repeat applications, overlapping;
natural resistance zelkova
Dexter locke phd usda fs summer tree summit f5/30/24 tree canopy, environmental justice & urban forestry ended before 108 pm
Foliar tissue addresses Acer heat tolerance when planning urban Maples, according to Percival and Percival in Arboriculture & Urban Forestry March 2024.
Foliar tissue addresses Acer heat tolerance when planning urban Maples, in Evaluation of Heat Tolerance in Foliar Tissue of Acer Genotypes by Percival and Percival in Arboriculture & Urban Forestry March 2024.
Urban tree species before the 21st century benefited from few thermal tolerance studies even as we nowadays broach foliar photosynthetic function as thermal tolerance limits downward-beckoned. Chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) communicates photosynthetic electron transport chains’ direct-, indirect-caused chill-, freeze-, heat-, salinity-compromised photosystem II components even as chlorophyll variable:maximum fluorescence (Fv/Fm) configures heat tolerance. July-August studies drew five each of Acer pseudoplatanus (‘Negenia’, Spaethii’), Acer platanoides (‘Royal Red’, ‘Princeton Gold’, ‘Emerald Queen’, ‘Drummondii’), Acer campestre, Acer campestre (‘Louisa Red Shine’).
Five tree-sourced 50 leaf disks endured four-hour, heat-stressful 44 degrees Celsius (111.2 degrees Fahrenheit), 72-hour Fv/Fm chlorophyll fluorescence-, Soil Plant Analysis Development (SPAD) leaf chlorophyll content-examining.
Growing-season timing of heat stress always featured fewer damages in July, fuller damages in August 2022 for Acer campestre, Acer platanoides, Acer pseudoplatanus leaf photosynthetic systems.
July and August heat stress respectively generated Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Negenia’ with -2.25 percent-reduced SPAD-gauged leaf chlorophyll content and Acer campestre’s -13.9 percent-reduced chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) ratios. Acer platanoides 'Drummondii' had the least heat-stress tolerance even as Fv/Fm values harvested leaf photosynthetic systems higher-harmed than SPAD value harvest for harmed leaf chlorophyll content. The SPAD-identified leaf chlorophyll content of Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Spaethii’ increased directly after July exposure to heat stress even as its values, post-August exposure, indicated decreased content.
Foliar tissue judges Acer heat tolerance for urban Maples, of which five of 8 tested genotypes jubilated fluorescence rates journeying upward 72 hours after heat stress.
Seventy-two-hour recovery kindled increased SPAD values, non-significantly differentiated, for ‘Drummondii’, ‘Princeton Gold’. ‘Emerald Queen’, ‘Royal Red’, ‘Louisa Red Shine’ cultivars; campestre species; ‘Negenia’ and ‘Spaethii’ cultivars. The study by Glynn C. Percival and Christopher D. Percival links foliar heat tolerance to leaf heat stress timing during growing-season bud burst and leaf flush. Unusually hot temperatures that merited a UK National Severe Weather Warning Service first-ever extreme heat warning perhaps made trees acclimate and muster increased July-August heat tolerance. Forest tree studies note the survival importance of rapid recovery, as leaf photosynthetic systems niching “repair and increased functioning” (Percival:162), from heat and other environmental stress.
Both authors offer rapid recovery as perhaps more oriented than rapid growth to foliar tissue obtaining survival and Acer heat tolerance to occur as urban Maples.
Perhaps urban-plantable trees possess forest-tree biochemical, physiological survival mechanisms as evaporation-cooling open stomata; modifying C3 carbon photosynthetic reactions; synthesizing heat-shock proteins, osmolytes and volatile organic compounds.
Acer platanoides ‘Emerald Queen’ qualified as queuing questionable Acer heat tolerance, among 8 questable urban maples, with the greated continued post-heat stress decline, at -22.8 percent. The Percival and Percival study results reveal as heat-stressed urban area-recruitable and as urban infrastructure-resideable Acer campestre, Acer platanoides ‘Royal Red’, Acer pseudoplatanus’Negenia’, Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Spaethii'. Both authors suggest no absolute foliar heat tolerance ranking for Acer campestre because of the latter’s propagatable seeds, gene-varied progeny, Europe-natural distribution and broad ecological rangeability.
Charlotte (North Carolina) and Shinfield (England) Bartlett Tree Research results tell us that Acer platanoides ‘Emerald Queen’ and Acer pseudoplatanus ‘Drummondii’ tolerate no heat-stressed urban areas.
Sassafras at an impasse? An update on laurel wilt in southern forests
Laurel wilt vascular wilt disease caused by fungus Harringtonia lauricola usually carried into trees by non-native ambrosia beetle vector redbay ambrosia beetle xyleborus glabratus called fungus farmer originally from southeast asia attacks health trees
Vascular wilt disease tylose formation plays role in xylem dysfuncton control mock inoculated laurel wilt results from hypersensitive response by host to presence of pathogen in xylem = overreacts xylem sapwood contains active xyle
Proposed laurel wilt disease cycle model in redbay suggested disease cycle fungal pathogen raffaelea lauricola insect vector xyleborus glabratus redbay ambrosia beetle insects gets gets out beetles attract to dead dying extensive blackbrosn streaking in sapwood female beetles emerge search for host trees beetle with spora bearing mycangia beetle deposits fungal spores into sapwood during initial attempt to colonize host partial crown wilt mild vascular discoloration beetle gallery with fungal symbiant
Underground pathogen transmission sassafras grows clonally and pathogen can travel between stems via roots pathogen traveled more than 3 m through sassafras roots first year post-inoculation katy crout Clemson ms thesis 2021 pathogen movement through root system
Lateral pathogen transfer to additional ambrosia beetles and other insects presence of the causal agent of laurel wilt disease in sassafras-associated insects morgan c knutsen lynne k rieske environmental entomology 52(6) 2023 1042-1047 xyleborus glabratus affinis volvulus ferrugineus gracilis saxeseni
Laurel wilt distribution and spread
Disease history 2002 xyleborus glabratus beetles detective in survey trap new to north America no known association with local trees or tree mortality 2003-2004 unusual redbay mortality in coastal sc gag a 2004 steve fraedrich usfs-srs investigates Hilton head sc in dec 2004 x glabratus recovered from redbay wood ophiostoma-like fungus isolated from wood raffaelea lauricola to harringtonia lauricola 2005 to present geographic spread and colonization of new hosts
2002 2004 2006 2010 2014 2018 maps county to county to state from moving infested wood
Oct 2023 oct 16 2023 throughout fl wof texas arkansas w Kentucky Indiana border
Drivers of invasion by laurel wilt of redbay and sassafras in the southeastern us Samuel f ward john j riggings landsc ecol 2023 38:567-581 fast spread first 5 years now slowing 2004-2021 detected 275 counties 72 discrete jumps into noncontiguous counties average jumpdistance 102 m 164 k decelerating rate spread after first 5 years r25 to 15 m per yr recent decline in number newly-reported counties 2020 33 2021 16 2022 9 2023 4 patchier host distribution colder climate less monitoringin rural areas covid
What host plants
Laurel family lauraceae 55 general more than 2000 species worldwide aromatic oils economic cultural medicinal ecological importance persea Americana laurus nobilis cinnamum
Sassafras albidum small diameter fence rows generally
Eastern us Canada especxially central Appalachians Midwest iliinois Indiana oh Kentucky wvirginia Pennsylvania furniture bowls native americans tea
Major species of lauraceae in north America sassafras albidum northern spicvebush lindera benzoin redbay persea ameriana California ba laurel umbellularia californica
Recovery plan for laurel wilt on redbay and other forest species caused by raffaelea lauricola and disseminated by xyleborus glabratus updated may 205 ma hughes et all plant health progress table forest tree species with laurel wilt due to natural infections
Laurel wilt in northern spicebush lindera benzoin first report of laurel wilt caused by harringtonia lauricola (previously raffaelea lauricola) on northern spicebush in Kentucky and teenessee Madison j eaton et al small diameter less visible uses small diameter profile as visual cue
Plants that are not laurel wilt hosts despite their names not in the lauraceae mountain laurel rhododendron spp laurel oak sweetbay magnolia loblolly bay gordonia lasianthus
Symptoms
Laurel wilt symptoms and signs in sassafras and redbay sapwood discoloration stunted foliage ambrosia beetle frass noodles wilted discolored and missing foliage
Laurel wilt in sassafras sapwood extensive infested for whie infected
Cecking vascular stain go deeper than outer ring outer sapwood surface clean just below cambium but deeper cut into next oldest growth stain evident
Wilting sassafras not caused by laurel wilt pathogen in mo oh leaves brown wilted drooped wilting symptoms midlate summer emerging wilt of sassafras and spicebush in the central hardwood forest region Olivia bigham et all Olivia forestry and natural resources grad student purdue u conclusions continue track locations of wilting sassafras and spicebush
Impacts
Rredbay mortality in coastal plain over 300 million trees killed hughest et al 2017 altered stand structure coasrse woody debris hazard trees threatened cultural uses hazard trees coastal dunes bayhead swamps mixed maritime forests florida everglades
Examples atrisk species palamedes swallowtail pollard transects 3 to 7 fold decrease in abundance versus paired uninfested stands riggings
Spread, vector flight behavior, and impact of laurel wilt in sassafras beyond the gulf-atlantic coastal plain albert e Mayfield III et al journal of froestr 2022 633-645 mean percent mortalit monitored sass at diseased sites n=13 increased from 11 to 60 percent 2018-2020 100 percent mortality 4 sites stands in which laurel wilt not detected less than 5 percent mortality
Elevated sassafras ortality evident in all diam classes no laurel wilt laurel wilt pathogen confirmed Matthew Longmire phd utn dr erome grant mark windham alan windham albert mayfield qiusheng wu found in leaf shelters on spicebush lepidopetera papilio Troilus 1 to 2 tortricidae spp orthoptera camptonotus carolinensis coleopteran 1 elateridae sp derm
[potential impacts beyond us laurel family diversity abundance miuch higher numerous with commercial value for timber essential oils central and south America 750 species in 26 generl 80 neotropical persea spp asia 550 species in 25 general in china alone several Asian species resistance
Trap beetle
Rab flight traps funnel panel sticky mimic host silhouette bait with host volatiles commercial essential oil lures alpha-copaene primary attractant fresh bolts host trees short-range attractin hanula et al 2016 j econ entomol 109:1196 no pheromone ures not very effective at early detection of low populations Mayfield et al journal of forestry 2022 633-645 Rab flight phenology in stands with sassafras Louisiana n Carolina s Carolina Alabama coastal plain nearly yearround minimal nov feb piedmont sandhills sc extreme southern mountains al initial flight early as feb two periods peak catch april pulse, august to fall pulse suggests 2 generation yearly piedmont and sandhills and mountains
Rab flight phenology western Kentucky rab 2020 began april peaked june ended nova b 2021 10 times reduction n catch as sassafras mortality up 100 percent xylosandrus crassiusculus more abundant and persistent
Total numbers and percentage specimens of ambrosi a beetle species captured in a-copaene-baited flight traps at two sites Laurel wilt pathogen confirmation field collection of moist sapwood with xylem discoloration isolate fungus on selective media morphological id Harrington et al 02009 mycyotaxon 104 399 dna extraction pcr amplification lamp assay for dna based field confirmation npdn network protocol for diagnostic labs harmon et al 2014 npdn
Management options
Potential management tactics don’t transport firewood don’t sell transport symptomatic plants sanitation chip cover burn may not kill all beetles but could help reduce local populations if coordinated areawide trench to sever root connections chemical control insecticide options limited onoefficacy fungicide infusion demonstrated in redbay and sassafras semiochemicals splat verbenone reduces attacks on redbay trees host resistance propagation of resistant redbay lingering sassafras stdp project
Lingering sassafras survey Statesboro ga aug 2020 trees over 3 in dbh rare in areas with 10 plus years of laurel wilt rabs more likely land on larger trees than smaller use stem silhouette as visual host-finding cue
Results indicate propiconazole provides adequate protection against laurel wilt in ehealthy sassafras for at least one growing season using either system tree i.v. infusion slower average 30 minutes than quik-jet
Solarization to reduce potential vector emergence> ambrosia beetle emergence all spp significantly reduced after 4 to 6 weeks in both sun and solarized treatments wood temp exceeded 56 degrees c in july 2023 in east tn under solarized clear plastic
Pest alert laurel wilt 155 p
Two papers for additional resources 3 yr study sass from coastal plain to pedimeont mountains forestry 2023 2022 other laura wei global perspective
Q rab environmental making trees more susceptible no solid but perhaps susceptibe host presencenot all hosts equally vulnerable temperature tolerance limiting spread no site vulnerability
Q how quickly kills health redbay sass redbay weeks months sass year or more infected before die recover
Qindiana stain not by larurel wilt seen anywhere in se no in mo oh only area
Q share slides will make available
Q fungicide injections preventive not remediation treating not treating uninfected
1.Laurel wilt is a canker disease that affects mountain laurel and rhododendron. True; FALSE.
2.Numerous tree and shrub species in the laurel family (Lauraceae) native to North America are susceptible to damage by the laurel wilt pathogen. TRUE; False.
3.In general, ambrosia beetles are insects that bore into wood, inoculate the walls of their tunnels with fungal spores, and grow those fungi as a food source. TRUE; False.
4.The geographic distribution of laurel wilt disease is currently limited to the natural range of redbay in the US southeastern Coastal Plain. True; FALSE.
5.The laurel wilt pathogen can be carried by insects other than the redbay ambrosia beetle, but the status of these insects as disease vectors in natural forests is uncertain. TRUE; False.