Earth and Space News: August 2012

Wednesday, August 29, 2012

Leeuwenhoek Crater Honors Dutch Microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek

Summary: The lunar far side’s Leeuwenhoek Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, a pioneer explorer of microbial life.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 72 shows the lunar far side’s Mees Crater system of parental Mees (left center) and satellites A (upper center), Y (upper left) and J (center); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

The lunar far side’s Mees Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, who pioneered the study of the microscopic world during the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology.

Leeuwenhoek Crater is a lunar impact crater with an eroded, worn outer rim. A central peak rises from the interior floor as a midpoint marker. A pair of craters form the northern and eastern points of a triangle with the central peak.

Leeuwenhoek occupies the lunar far side’s southeastern quadrant. Its westernmost extent misses the lunar antimeridian by only 1.08 degrees.

As on Earth, the moon’s 180th meridian, common to both east and west longitudes, represents the geographical antipode, or diametrical opposite, of the moon’s prime meridian. The moon’s zero degree line of longitude demarcates the near side’s western and eastern halves, just as the lunar 180th meridian distinguishes the far side’s western and eastern halves.

Leeuwenhoek Crater is centered at minus 29.28 degrees south latitude, minus 178.87 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The crater’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes reach minus 27.24 degrees south and minus 31.33 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes extend to minus 176.65 degrees west and 178.92 degrees east, respectively. Leeuwenhoek Crater’s diameter spans 125 kilometers.

The primary crater parents one satellite, Leeuwenhoek E. Part of eastern Leeuwenhoek covers much of western Leeuwenhoek E.

Leeuwenhoek E is centered at minus 28.51 degrees south latitude, minus 176.27 degrees west longitude. The satellite obtains northernmost and southernmost latitudes at minus 26.83 degrees south and minus 30.2 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes occur at minus 174.35 degrees west and minus 178.19 degrees west, respectively. The satellite’s diameter of 102.11 kilometers approximates 81.70 percent of its parent’s 125-kilometer diameter.

The Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s busy neighborhood features three close neighbors. Nassau F, Orlov and Rumford T reside as close neighbors to the north, northeast and east, respectively.

Nassau F hovers to the north of parental Leeuwenhoek and to the northwest of Leeuwenhoek E. Nassau F claims the most southerly and easterly reaches of the Nassau Crater system’s three satellites.

Nassau F is centered at minus 25.33 degrees south latitude, minus 179.09 degrees west longitude. It registers northernmost and southernmost latitudes at minus 23.75 degrees south and minus 26.92 degrees south, respectively. It finds easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 177.01 degrees west and 178.82 degrees east, respectively. Nassau F’s diameter measures 115.37 kilometers.

Northeastern Leeuwenhoek E jostles the outward bulge in southwestern Orlov Crater. Orlov is centered at minus 25.77 degrees south latitude, minus 175.08 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 24.59 degrees south and minus 26.95 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at minus 173.75 degrees west and minus 176.41 degrees west, respectively. Orlov Crater has a diameter of 72.93 kilometers.

Rumford T resides as Leeuwenhoek E’s eastern neighbor. Rumford T claims the largest diameter in the Rumford Crater system.

Rumford T is centered at minus 28.54 degrees south latitude, minus 172.15 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch from minus 26.7 degrees south to minus 30.38 degrees south, respectively. It posts easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 170.05 degrees west and minus 174.24 degrees west, respectively. Rumford T’s diameter measures 111.67 kilometers.

Leeuwenhoek Crater honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (Oct. 24, 1632-Aug. 26, 1723). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) approved Leeuwenhoek as the crater’s official name in 1970, during the organization’s XIVth (14th) General Assembly, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, from Tuesday, Aug. 18, to Thursday, Aug. 27. Prior to its formal naming, Leeuwenhoek Crater was known as Crater 375.

Approval of the letter designation for the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s solitary satellite was granted in 2006. The satellite’s letter designation, E, represents its northeasterly placement with respect to its parent. According to the lettered 24-hour dial, E’s position between 2 (D) and 3 (F) translates as northeast of its parent’s location at the clock face’s center.

Antony van Leeuwenhoek’s concern for accurate assessment of the quality of the thread in the cloths sold in his draper shop motivated his interest in lensmaking. The self-taught microscopist then applied his powerful lenses to the study of microscopic organisms.

With the encouragement of Dutch Golden Age anatomist and physician Reinier de Graaf (July 30, 1641-Aug. 17, 1673), van Leeuwenhoek’s began communicating his microbiological observations to the Royal Society, formally known as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge. His first report, published in The Royal Society’s Philosophical Transactions in 1673, described microscopic observations of mold, a bee and a louse. Van Leeuwenhoek’s microbiological discoveries included documentation of such phenomena as bacteria, protozoa and spermatozoa.

According to The Royal Society website, Philosophical Transactions published 190 communications from van Leeuwenhoek. The self-taught microscopist and microbiologist was elected as a Fellow of The Royal Society on Jan. 29, 1680.

The takeaways for Leeuwenhoek Crater, which honors Dutch microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek, are that the far side lunar impact crater parents one satellite in the southeastern quadrant; that Nassau F, Orlov and Rumford T occur as the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s immediate neighbors; and that the Leeuwenhoek Crater system’s namesake was a draper whose self-taught skills as a maker of magnifying lenses led him to discoveries of microscopic phenomena.

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 104 shows the lunar far side’s Leeuwenhoek Crater system of parental Leeuwenhoek (lower left) and satellite E (center), with neighbors Nassau F (upper left), Orlov (upper center) and Rumford T (center-lower right); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/images/Lunar/lac104_wac.pdf

Image obtained with 70mm Hasselblad camera during the Apollo 17 mission’s lunar revolution 16, December 1972, shows Orlov Y (lower-center), Orlov Crater (upper left) and the Leeuwenhoek Crater system of satellite E and primary Leeuwenhoek (upper); NASA ID AS17-150-22949: No known copyright restrictions, via U.S. National Archives @ https://nara.getarchive.net/media/as17-150-22949-apollo-17-apollo-17-moon-orlov-leeuwenhoek-4af539; via USRA LPI’s Apollo Image Atlas @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/apollo/frame/?AS17-150-22949

For further information:

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

de Jager, C.; and A. (Arnost) Jappel, eds. XIVth General Assembly Transactions of the IAU Vol. XIV B Proceedings of the 14th General Assembly Brighton, United Kingdom, August 18-27, 1970. Washington DC: Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Jan. 1, 1971.
Available @ https://www.iau.org/publications/iau/transactions_b/

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Leeuwenhoek.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3329

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Leeuwenhoek E.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10721

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Nassau F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/11543

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Orlov.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4493

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford T.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12732

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Target: The Moon.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Page/MOON/target

Leeuwenhoeck, M. (Monsieur); and Dr. Regnerus de Graaf. “A Specimen of Some Observations Made by a Microscope, Contrived by M. Leewenhoeck in Holland, Lately Communicated by Dr. Regnerus de Graaf.” Philosophical Transactions, vol. 8 (1673): 6037-6038.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/101348

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “Bragg Crater Honors British Physicist Sir William Henry Bragg.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, March 14, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/03/bragg-crater-honors-british-physicist.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Harkhebi Crater Honors Early Ptolemaic Astronomer Prince Harkhebi.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Jan. 18, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/01/harkhebi-crater-honors-early-ptolemaic.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Harkhebi Crater Parents Six Satellites on Lunar Far Side.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Jan. 25, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/01/harkhebi-crater-parents-six-satellites.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Maxwell Crater Honors Scottish Mathematical Physicist James Maxwell.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, June 13, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/maxwell-crater-honors-scottish.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Mees Crater Honors British-Born American Photographer Kenneth Mees.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Aug. 8, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/08/mees-crater-honors-british-born.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Pogson Crater Honors British Astronomer Norman Robert Pogson.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, June 20, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/pogson-crater-honors-british-astronomer.html

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions.” The Moon.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Leeuwenhoek.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > L Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Leeuwenhoek

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration; and Department of Defense Aeronautical Chart and Information Center. Lunar Farside Chart LFC-1. Second edition. October 1967.
Available @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/LunarFarsideCharts/LFC-1%201stEd/LFC-1%202ndEd/LFC-1A/

The Royal Society. “Leeuwenhoek; Antoni van (1632-1723); Naturalist.” The Royal Society > Collections > Fellows.
Available @ https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=25&dsqSearch=%28%28text%29%3D%27leeuwenhoek%27%29

Wednesday, August 22, 2012

Rumford Crater Parents Six Satellites on Lunar Far Side

Summary: Rumford Crater parents six satellites on the lunar far side, in the southeastern quadrant, in proximity to the 180th meridian.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 104 shows the Rumford Crater system’s western satellites, Rumford Q and T, on the lunar far side; courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Rumford Crater parents six satellites on the lunar side as a crater system in the southeastern quadrant, in proximity to the 180th meridian, the antimeridian.

Dark-floored Rumford Crater is centered at minus 28.81 degrees south latitude, minus 169.8 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch from minus 27.81 degrees south to minus 29.81 degrees south, respectively. The southern hemisphere crater’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes reach minus 168.66 degrees west and minus 170.95 degrees west, respectively. Rumford Crater’s diameter measures 60.83 kilometers.

Rumford Crater parents six satellites. Two satellites reside as their parent’s west side neighbors. Four satellites favor their parent’s east side.

The letter designations of Rumford Q and Rumford T indicate the two satellites’ westerly position with respect to their parent. T occupies a westerly location while Q is sited to the southwest of its parent.

Rumford T occurs as its parent’s most proximitous satellite. Its parent’s western rim overlies satellite T’s eastern rim. T holds the most westerly position in the Rumford Crater system.

Rumford T is centered at minus 28.54 degrees south latitude, minus 172.15 degrees west longitude. The satellite post northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 26.7 degrees south and minus 30.38 degrees south, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at minus 170.05 degrees west and minus 174.24 degrees west, respectively. Rumford T’s diameter spans 111.67 kilometers.

Rumford T’s diameter qualifies it as the largest of the Rumford Crater system’s six satellites and, indeed, as the system’s largest crater. Parental Rumford’s diameter of 60.83 kilometers approximates 54.5 percent of satellite T’s 111.67 kilometer-diameter.

Rumford Q claims the most southerly location in the Rumford Crater system. Rumford Q lies to the southwest of its parent and to the south-southeast of Rumford T.

Rumford Q is centered at minus 30.86 degrees south latitude, minus 171.76 degrees west longitude. The satellite records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 30.38 degrees south and minus 31.34 degrees south, respectively. It registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 171.2 degrees west and minus 172.32 degrees west, respectively. Rumford Q has a diameter of 29.06 kilometers.

The letter designations of Rumford A, B, C and F reveal their easterly position with respect to their parent. Satellites A, B and C hold northeasterly positions in the Rumford Crater system. Satellite F is found to the east of its parents.

Rumford A is centered at minus 25.16 degrees south latitude, minus 169.09 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost reach at minus 24.66 degrees south latitude marks the Rumford Crater system’s most northerly extent. Rumford A’s southernmost reach touches minus 25.66 degrees south latitude. The satellite obtains easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 168.54 degrees west and minus 169.64 degrees west, respectively. Rumford A’s diameter measures 30.15 kilometers.

Rumford B resides to the near east of Rumford A. Satellite B’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes occur at minus 24.75 degrees south and minus 25.47 degrees south, respectively. It posts easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 167.46 degrees west and minus 168.26 degrees west, respectively. Rumford B has a diameter of 22.07 kilometers.

Among the Rumford Crater system’s four easterly satellites, Rumford C is positioned the closest to its parent. Satellite C rests to the southeast of Rumford A, to the south of Rumford B and to the near southeast of its parent.

Rumford C is centered at minus 27.47 degrees south latitude, minus 167.92 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 27.04 degrees south and minus 27.9 degrees south, respectively. C registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 167.44 degrees west and minus 168.41 degrees west, respectively. Rumford C’s diameter measures 26.09 kilometers.

Rumford F’s placement to the east of its parent qualifies it for the most easterly position in the Rumford Crater system. Rumford F lies to the southeast of Rumford C.

Rumford F is centered at minus 28.75 degrees south latitude, minus 165.03 degrees west longitude. It posts northernmost and southernmost latitudes of minus 28.54 degrees south and minus 28.96 degrees south, respectively. It finds easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 164.76 degrees west and minus 165.3 degrees west, respectively. Rumford F’s diameter of 14.47 kilometers ranks it as the smallest of the Rumford Crater system’s six satellites and, indeed, as the Rumford system’s smallest crater.

The takeaways for Rumford Crater’s parentage of six satellites on the lunar far side are that two satellites claim westerly placement with respect to their parent; that four satellites favor their parent’s eastern side; that the system’s largest satellite, Rumford T, is larger than its parent; and that parental Rumford’s western rim covers Rumford T’s eastern rim.

Detail of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 105 shows the Rumford Crater system’s eastern satellites (Rumford A, B, C, F) on the lunar far side; courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5220

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford A.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12727

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford B.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12728

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford C.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12729

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12730

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Rumford Q.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/12731

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “Rumford Crater Honors American-British Physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Aug. 22, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/08/rumford-crater-honors-american-british.html

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

Wednesday, August 15, 2012

Rumford Crater Honors American-British Physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson

Summary: The lunar far side’s Rumford Crater honors American-British physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who discerned heat as a form of motion.

Details of Lunar Astronautical Charts (LAC) 104 (left) and 105 (right) show the lunar far side’s Rumford Crater system of parental Rumford, west side satellites Q and T (LAC 104) and east side satellites A, B, C and F (LAC 105); courtesy NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) / GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) / ASU (Arizona State University): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

The lunar far side’s Rumford Crater honors American-British physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, who determined from his experiments in thermodynamics that heat is a form of energy.

Rumford Crater is a lunar impact crater that classifies as a complex crater. Inward slumping of portions of the inner sides of the crater’s walls have created shelves or terraces that particularly accentuate Rumford’s eastern side. An outward protrusion along the crater’s eastern edge breaks Rumford’s roundish outline. A small ridge protrudes above the interior floor near the midpoint.

Rumford’s dark interior floor distinguishes the crater from the surrounding terrain. The crater’s lower albedo indicates that the absorption of light by Rumford’s surface materials exceeds their light reflectance. Contrastingly, the composition of the surrounding terrain encourages the return of solar radiation to space.

Rumford Crater is centered at minus 28.81 degrees south latitude, minus 169.8 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The southern hemisphere crater’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes occur at minus 27.81 degrees south and minus 29.81 degrees south, respectively. The complex crater obtains easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 168.66 degrees west and minus 170.95 degrees west, respectively. Rumford Crater has a diameter of 60.83 kilometers.

Rumford’s westernmost extent of minus 170.95 degrees west approaches the lunar antemeridian by 9.05 degrees. As the geographical antipode, or diametrical opposite, of the moon’s prime meridian, the antimeridian marks the moon’s 180th meridian and occurs on the lunar far side. At zero degrees longitude, the prime meridian links the north and south poles on the lunar near side. Both meridians demarcate east and west lines of longitude on their respective sides of the moon.

Rumford Crater parents six satellites in the far side’s southeastern quadrant. Four satellites (A, B, C, F) fan from their parent’s eastern side. Two satellites (Q, T) neighbor on their parent’s western side. Rumford T nestles along its parent’s western side. Rumford T’s diameter of 111.67 kilometer dwarfs its parent’s 60.83 kilometer-diameter and garners T recognition as the Rumford Crater system’s largest crater.

Rumford Crater honors American-British physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (March 26, 1753-Aug. 21, 1814). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted Leeuwenhoek as the crater’s official name in 1970, during the organization’s XIVth (14th) General Assembly, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, from Tuesday, Aug. 18, to Thursday, Aug. 27. Prior to its formal naming, Rumford Crater was known as Crater 381.

Approval of the letter designation for the Rumford Crater system’s six satellites was granted in 2006. Prior to its official naming, Rumford T was known as Crater 380.

Massachusetts-born Benjamin Thompson was a Loyalist during the American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775-Sept. 3, 1783). In July 1778, during his Loyalist military service, Thompson conducted experiments on gunpowder. The Royal Society, known officially as The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, published Thompson’s report of his gunpowder findings in the 1781 issue of Philosophical Transactions, the Society’s official publication. He was elected as a Fellow of The Royal Society (FRS) on April 22, 1779.

After the war’s end, Thompson relocated to London. He became Sir Benjamin Thompson with his knighthood in 1784 by King George III (June 4, 1738-June 4, 1738).

In 1785, Sir Benjamin entered service in the Electorate of Bavaria (Kurfürstentum Bayern) as an aide-de-camp to Charles Theodore (Dec. 11, 1724-Feb. 16, 1799), Elector of Bavaria, Count Palatine of the Rhine. In 1791, he was made an Imperial Count (Reichsgraf) of the Holy Roman Empire. Sir Benjamin’s selection of Rumford as his territorial suffix commemorated Rumford (now Concord), New Hampshire, the town where the Hall Street family estate of his first wife, Sarah Walker Rolfe Thompson (Aug. 6, 1739-Jan. 19, 1792), was located.

Sir Benjamin’s almost lifelong fascination with heat and temperature accounted for his most important scientific achievement. He reported his critical discovery of heat as a form of motion in a paper entitled “An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat Which Is Excited by Fiction,” which was published in the 1798 issue of Philosophical Transactions.

The takeaways for Rumford Crater, which honors American-British physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, are that the far side lunar impact crater occurs in the southern hemisphere near the 180th meridian; that the complex crater parents six satellites; and that the Rumford Crater system’s namesake is credited with the critical discernment of heat as a form of energy.

Detail of Shaded Relief and Color-Coded Topography Map shows lunar far side’s Rumford Crater (upper center) system’s proximity to the lunar prime meridian (180 degrees longitude) as a far side southeastern quadrant crater system: U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Andersson, Leif E.; and Ewen A. Whitaker. NASA Catalogue of Lunar Nomenclature. NASA Reference Publication 1097. Washington DC: NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Scientific and Technical Information Branch, October 1982.
Available via NASA NTRS (NASA Technical Reports Server) @ https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19830003761.pdf

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions.” The Moon.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Rumford.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > R Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Rumford

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

The Royal Society. “Thompson; Benjamin (1753-1814); Count Rumford; Physicist.” The Royal Society > Collections > Fellows.
Available @ https://collections.royalsociety.org/DServe.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&dsqApp=Archive&dsqCmd=Show.tcl&dsqDb=Persons&dsqPos=0&dsqSearch=%28%28text%29%3D%27Thompson,%20Benjamin%27%29

Thompson, Benjamin. “IV. An Inquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat Which Is Excited by Friction.” Read January 25, 1798. Philosophical Transactions, vol. 88, Part I (Dec. 31, 1798): 80-102.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/106970.pdf
Available via The Royal Society Publishing @ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1798.0006

Thompson, Benjamin. “XV. New Experiments Upon Gun-Powder, With Occasional Observations and Practical Inferences; To Which Are Added, an Account of a New Method of Determining the Velocities of All Kinds of Military Projectiles, and the Description of a Very Accurate Eprouvette for Gun-Powder.” Read March 29, 1781. Philosophical Transactions, vol. LXXI, Part I (1781): 229-328.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/106525.pdf
Available via The Royal Society Publishing @ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1781.0039

Thompson, Colonel Sir Benjamin. “XIV. New Experiments Upon Heat. By Colonel Sir Benjamin Thompson, Knt. F.R.S. In a Letter to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. P.R.S.” Read March 9, 1786. Philosophical Transactions, vol. LXXVI, Part II (Dec. 31, 1786): 273-304.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/106626.pdf
Available via The Royal Society Publishing @ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1786.0014

van der Hucht, Karel A., ed. XXVIth General Assembly Transactions of the IAU Vol. XVII B Proceedings of the 26th General Assembly Prague, Czech Republic, August 14-25, 2006. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, Dec. 30, 2008.
Available @ https://www.iau.org/publications/iau/transactions_b/

Saturday, August 11, 2012

Tree Risk Assessment Mitigation Reports: Tree Removal, Tree Retention?

Summary: Sharon Lilly, Nelda Matheny and E. Thomas Smiley discuss opting for and recording tree removal or tree retention in tree risk assessment mitigation reports.

Tree risk assessment mitigation reports assess tree removal or, preferentially, tree retention; risk tree (right) in park near Tawas City, Iosco County, Lower Peninsula of Michigan: Joseph O'Brien/USDA Forest Service/Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0 Unported, via Forestry Images

Tree risk assessment mitigation reports are records of the inspections, remedies and reviews of risky trees, according to Tree Risk Assessment: Mitigation and Reporting in the August 2012 issue of Arborist News.

Sharon Lilly of the International Society of Arboriculture, Nelda Matheny of HortScience, Inc., and E. Thomas Smiley of the Bartlett Tree Research Laboratory begin with risk-taking. Master gardeners, master naturalists, tree risk assessors and tree stewards consider tree-based risks regarding the likelihood of tree failure and impact and target-based risks respecting consequences. Target-based thinking drives clients and tree risk assessors to decide immediately upon "the ultimate security of risk elimination based on tree removal" over tree retention options.

Residual risk endures in target-based options since "With tree removal, that residual risk is brought to near zero; however, even stumps can pose some residual risk."

Tree-based thinking finds "possibilities for retaining trees when practicable" since "Trees offer many benefits," such as anchoring soils against erosion, releasing oxygen and removing carbon dioxide.

The "preventive and remedial" mitigation process gets the "likelihood of failure or the likelihood of impact" and their consequences to a level "acceptable to the client." Tree retention mitigation heads toward drainage systems, lightning protection and structural support brace rods, cables, guys and props to reduce wet soil-, storm- and wind-induced failures. Crown-raising, pollarding, reduction pruning, thinning and tree growth regulators increase wind dissipation and transfer while relocating, rerouting or restricting mobile and movable targets inhibits risky access.

Tree risk assessment mitigation reports juggle information, such as residual risks and risk ratings of extreme-risk, high-risk, moderate-risk or low-risk, for tree removal and retention options.

The risk ratings keyed from inspections into tree risk assessment mitigation reports keep work priorities on schedule since extreme-risk trees are mitigated "as soon as possible." They lead to mitigating high-risk trees "as soon as it is practical" and moderate- and low-risk trees whenever pruning cycles and work budgets and schedules converge.

Verbal, videographic, work order or written-up report manages one-time or repeated progression from inspection to intervention, re-inspection and re-intervention for tree removal or tree retention. It notes assessment date and assessor name, inspection level as limited visual or basic or advanced, scope of work, site factors and tree identification and location. It operates as detailed documentation of response growth, storm patterns, structural defects, target mobility and occupancy rates and tree failure and site impact likelihood and consequences.

Tree risk assessment mitigation reports protect "both tree risk assessor and client from misunderstandings" by providing information on residual risks and limitations on inspections and inspectors.

"[U]ncertainties related to trees and the loads to which they are subjected" qualify as limitations on assessments since "scientific study of tree failure is relatively young." Inspectors investigating tree removal and tree retention options reveal as limitations on performance anecdotal information, hidden defects, inaccessible sites, nascent methodology, seasonal pests and unpredictable winds. Limitations suggest inspection intervals of eight to 16 months, one to two years and three to five years for pest-prone, high-risk and low- to moderate-risk trees.

Assessment, mitigation, re-inspection and re-intervention take assessors and clients close to de-mystifying how trees avoid failure and what wind directions and speeds cause trees to fail.

Measuring a tree's vitality with an electrical conductivity meter is helpful in tree risk assessment retention or removal: USDA Forest Service-Northeastern Area/USDA Forest Service/Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0 United States, via Forestry Images

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to:
talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet;
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for superior on-campus and on-line resources.

Image credits:

Tree risk assessment mitigation reports assess tree removal or, preferentially, tree retention; risk tree in park near Tawas City, Iosco County, Lower Peninsula of Michigan: Joseph O'Brien/USDA Forest Service/Bugwood.org, CC BY 3.0 United States, via Forestry Images @ https://www.forestryimages.org/browse/detail.cfm?imgnum=5030027

Gilman, Ed. 2011. An Illustrated Guide to Pruning. Third Edition. Boston MA: Cengage.

Hayes, Ed. 2001. Evaluating Tree Defects. Revised, Special Edition. Rochester MN: Safe Trees.

Marriner, Derdriu. 16 June 2012. “Internally Stressed, Response Growing, Wind Loaded Tree Strength.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/internally-stressed-response-growing.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 14 April 2012. “Three Tree Risk Assessment Levels: Limited Visual, Basic and Advanced.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/04/three-tree-risk-assessment-levels.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 19 February 2012. “Qualitative Tree Risk Assessment: Risk Ratings for Targets and Trees.” Earth and Space News. Sunday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/02/qualitative-tree-risk-assessment-risk.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 18 February 2012. “Qualitative Tree Risk Assessment: Falling Trees Impacting Targets.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/02/qualitative-tree-risk-assessment.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 10 December 2011. “Tree Risk Assessment: Tree Failures From Defects and From Wind Loads.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/12/tree-risk-assessment-tree-failures-from.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 15 October 2011. “Five Tree Felling Plan Steps for Successful Removals and Worker Safety.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/10/five-tree-felling-plan-steps-for.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 13 August 2011. “Natives and Non-Natives as Successfully Urbanized Plant Species.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/08/natives-and-non-natives-as-successfully.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 11 June 2011. “Tree Ring Patterns for Ecosystem Ages, Dates, Health and Stress.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/06/tree-ring-patterns-for-ecosystem-ages.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 9 April 2011. “Benignly Ugly Tree Disorders: Oak Galls, Powdery Mildew, Sooty Mold, Tar Spot.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/04/benignly-ugly-tree-disorders-oak-galls.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 12 February 2011. “Tree Load Can Turn Tree Health Into Tree Failure or Tree Fatigue.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2011/02/tree-load-can-turn-tree-health-into.html

Marriner, Derdriu. 11 December 2010. “Tree Electrical Safety Knowledge, Precautions, Risks and Standards.” Earth and Space News. Saturday.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2010/12/tree-electrical-safety-knowledge.html

Smiley, E. Thomas; Matheny, Nelda; and Lilly, Sharon. August 2012. "Tree Risk Assessment: Mitigation and Reporting." Arborist News 21(4): 14-18.
Available @ http://viewer.epaperflip.com/Viewer.aspx?docid=de6602f7-b34e-413f-b53b-a2bd009f8b0d#?page=14

Wednesday, August 8, 2012

Mees Crater Honors British-Born American Photographer Kenneth Mees

Summary: Lunar far side Mees Crater honors British-born photographer Kenneth Mees, developer of sensitive emulsions for astronomical photography.

The lunar far side’s Mees Crater honors British-born photographer Kenneth Mees, whose development of emulsions sensitive to the infrared and red spectrum increased understanding of the stellar radiant energy.

Mees Crater appears as a broken-circled crater in the lunar far side’s northeastern quadrant. Craterlets particularly pimple the crater’s western ramparts and northeastern inner wall.

The primary crater is centered at 13.57 north latitude, minus 96.18 degrees west longitude, according to the International Astrnomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The crater’s northernmost and southernmost latitudes occur at 14.42 degrees north and 12.72 degrees north, respectively. It obtains easternmost and westernmost longitudes at minus 95.31 degrees west and minus 97.05 degrees west, respectively. Mees Crater’s diameter measures 51.55 kilometers.

Mees Crater parents three satellites. Northern satellites A and Y are settled to their parent’s north-northeast and north-northwest, respectively. Southern satellite J is sited to the southeast of its parent.

Satellite A is centered at 15.64 degrees north latitude, minus 95.31 degrees west longitude. It posts northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 16.21 degrees north and 15.08 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes are found at minus 94.72 degrees west and minus 95.9 degrees west, respectively. Mees A has a diameter of 34.32 kilometers.

Mees Y claims the most northerly and most westerly location of the Mees Crater system’s three satellites. Satellite A snuggles along Y’s eastern rim.

Satellite Y is centered at 15.73 degrees north latitude, minus 96.74 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes reach 17 degrees north and 14.45 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes extend to minus 95.42 degrees west and minus 98.07 degrees west, respectively. Mees Y’s diameter spans 77.38 kilometers.

Mees Y’s diameter qualifies it as the largest of the Mees Crater system’s three satellites. Y also claims the largest diameter in the Mees Crater system, as its 77.38-kilometer diameter exceeds its parent’s 51.55-kilometer diameter.

Mees J claims the most southerly and most easterly location of the Mees Crater system’s three satellites. Its easternmost longitude surpasses Mees A’s easternmost point by less than half of a degree.

Satellite J is centered at 12.29 degrees north latitude, minus 94.86 degrees west longitude. It records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 12.69 degrees north and 11.89 degrees north, respectively. J registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of minus 94.45 degrees west and minus 95.27 degrees west, respectively. With a diameter of 24.35 kilometers, Mees J qualifies as the smallest of the Mees Crater system’s three satellites.

The Mees Crater system is located in the far northern outskirts of the Mare Orientale (Eastern Sea) impact basin. It lies beyond Montes Cordillera, the outermost of the three rings surrounding the bull’s-eye lunar mare.

Mare Orientale is centered at minus 19.87 degrees south latitude, minus 94.67 degrees west longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch from minus 15.23 degrees south to minus 24.39 degrees south, respectively. The lunar mare’s easternmost and westernmost longitudes occur at minus 89.74 degrees west and minus 99.96 degrees west, respectively. Mare Orientale’s diameter spans 294.16 kilometers.

Mees Crater honors British-born American photographer C.E. (Charles Edward) Kenneth Mees (May 26, 1882-Aug. 15, 1960). The International Astronomical Union (IAU) approved Mees as the crater’s official name in 1970, during the organization’s XIVth (14th) General Assembly, held in Brighton, United Kingdom, from Tuesday, Aug. 18, to Thursday, Aug. 27. Prior to its formal naming, Mees Crater was designated as Crater 260.

Approval of the letter designations for the Bragg Crater system’s three satellites was granted in 2006. Prior to name formalization, satellites A and Y were referenced as craters 261 and 259, respectively.

Mees received his Bachelor of Science degree in 1903 and his Ph.D. in 1906, both from the University of London. He researched the photographic process for both his undergraduate and graduate theses.

Mees expanded his longstanding interest in sensitizing the photographic process to the visible light spectrum to include improvements for scientific work, particularly in astronomy and spectroscopy. At a new emulsion research laboratory that he had established in 1931 at the Eastman Kodak Research Laboratories in Rochester, New York, Mees developed emulsions with sensitivity to a wide range of visible and near infra-red spectral bands. In 1936, the United States National Academy of Sciences (NAS) recognized the significance of Mees’ emulsions for astronomical research by awarding him the Henry Draper Medal.

The takeaways for Mees Crater, which honors British-born American photographer Kenneth Mees, are that the steep-walled primary crater occupies the northern edge of ejecta from the Mare Orientale (Eastern Sea) impact basin in the lunar far side’s northeastern quadrant; that Mees Crater parents three satellites; and that the Mees Crater system’s namesake developed emulsions that greatly advanced astronomical research in stellar radiant energy via their sensitivities to infrared and red spectral bands.

Detail of Shaded Relief and Color-Coded Topography Map shows lunar far side’s Mees Crater (upper center) as lunar far side northeastern quadrant crater, located north of Mare Orientale (bottom), beyond the Orientale impact basin’s third ring, Montes Cordillera (center): U.S. Geological Survey, Public Domain, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Image credits:

Clark, Walter. “Charles Edward Kenneth Mees 1882-1960.” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of The Royal Society. Nov. 1, 1961.
Available @ https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbm.1961.0014

Commonwealth War Graves Commission. “Second Lieutenant Bragg, Robert Charles.” CWGC Commonwealth War Graves Commission > Find War Dead & Cemeteries.
Available @ https://www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/680754/

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grego, Peter. The Moon and How to Observe It. Astronomers’ Observing Guides. London UK: Springer-Verlag, 2005.

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mare Orientale.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3685

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mees.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3798

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mees A.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/11314

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mees J.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/11315

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mees Y.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/11316

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Montes Cordillera.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated June 5, 2012.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4008

Jenkin, John. William and Lawrence Bragg, Father and Son: The Most Extraordinary Collaboration in Science. New York NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. “De Morgan Crater Honors British Mathematician Augustus De Morgan.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, June 27, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/06/de-morgan-crater-honors-british.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Near Side Lunar Crater Swift Honors American Astronomer Lewis Swift.” Earth and Space News. Wednesday, Jan. 4, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/01/near-side-lunar-crater-swift-honors.html

Marriner, Derdriu. “Sheepshanks Crater Honors British Astronomical Benefactor Anne Sheepshanks.” Earth and Space News. Feb. 1, 2012.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2012/02/sheepshanks-crater-honors-british.html

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions.” The Moon.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Orientale.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > M Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Orientale

The Moon Wiki. “Mees.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > O Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mees

The Moon Wiki. “Montes Cordillera.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > C Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Montes_Cordillera

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

NAS Online. “Henry Draper Medal.” NAS (National Academy of Sciences) Online > Awards.
Available @ https://web.archive.org/web/20130126003930/http://www.nasonline.org/about-nas/awards/henry-draper-medal.html