Earth and Space News: Julius Caesar Crater lunar near side

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Wednesday, March 29, 2023

Julius Caesar Crater Parents 10 Satellites on Lunar Northeast Near Side

Summary: Julius Caesar Crater parents 10 satellites in the highlands between Mare Tranquillitatis and Mare Vaporum on the lunar northeast near side.

Julius Caesar Crater parents 10 satellites in the highlands bordering Mare Serenitatis, Mare Tranquillitatis and Mare Vaporum in the lunar near side's northeastern quadrant.

The low latitude northern hemisphere-sited Julius Caesar Crater system lies in the highland region between the northwestern shores of Mare Tranquillitatis ("Sea of Tranquility") and Mare Vaporum ("Sea of Vapors"). Its location also places the craterous system in the highland region that intervenes between Mare Vaporum and Mare Serenitatis ("Sea of Serenity"), northern neighbor of Mare Tranquillitatis.

Julius Caesar Crater is centered at 9.17 degrees north latitude, 15.21 degrees east longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The northern hemisphere crater registers northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 10.56 degrees north and 7.77 degrees north, respectively. The eastern hemisphere crater records easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 16.63 degrees east and 13.80 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar Crater has a diameter of 84.72 kilometers.

Mare Serenitatis is centered at 27.29 degrees north latitude, 18.36 degrees east longitude. Northernmost and southernmost latitudes for the northern hemisphere-sited lunar mare (Latin: mare, "sea"; plural, maria, "seas") touch 37.81 degrees north and 16.13 degrees north, respectively. The eastern hemisphere occupant'seasternmost and westernmost longitudes tap 29.92 degrees east and 6.59 degrees east, respectively. Mare Serenitatis has a diameter of 674.28 kilometers.

Mare Tranquillitatis is centered at 8.35 degrees north latitude, 30.83 degrees east longitude. The equator-straddling lunar mare establishes its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 19.37 degrees north and minus 4.05 degrees south, respectively. The eastern hemisphere-sited dark, basaltic plain obtains its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 45.49 degrees east and 16.92 degrees east, respectively. Mare Tranquillitatis has a diameter of 875.75 kilometers.

Mare Vaporum is centered at 13.20 degrees north latitude, 4.09 degrees east longitude. The northern hemisphere-sited low latitude basaltic plain marks its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 16.91 degrees north and 9.39 degrees north, respectively. The prime meridian straddler tags its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 8.73 degrees east and minus 0.41 degrees west, respectively. Mare Vaporum's diameter measures 242.46 kilometers.

The Julius Caesar Crater system's 10 satellites trace an arc on and around their parent that separates their parent's northeastern, northern, northwestern, western, southwestern and southern perimeters from neighboring named crater systems. Satellite Q logs the farthest and northernmost distances from its parent. Satellite F rates as the system's northwesternmost and westernmost positions. Satellite D garners the system's southeasternmost position.

Julius Caesar A is positioned on its parent's southwestern, terraced wall. Its is centered at 7.66 degrees north latitude, 14.45 degrees east longitude. It obtains its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 7.89 degrees north and 7.43 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes occur at 14.68 degrees east and 14.22 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar A has a diameter of 13.75 kilometers.

Julius Caesar B nestles on its parent's northwestern, terraced wall. It is centered at 9.76 degrees north latitude, 13.94 degrees east longitude. It posts northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 9.87 degrees north and 9.65 degrees north, respectively. It sets its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 14.05 degrees east and 13.82 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar B has a diminutive diameter of 6.72 kilometers.

Julius Caesar C lies to the southeast of satellite A. Satellite C fringes its parent's southwestern wall in terrain described as "low rounded banks" (page 56) by British selenographer Thomas Gwyn Empy Elger (Oct. 27, 1836-Jan. 9, 1897) in his description of Julius Caesar Crater in his Victorian era lunar guide, The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features, published in 1895.

Julius Caesar C is centered at 7.30 degrees north latitude, 15.34 degrees east longitude. It limits its northernmost and southernmost latitudes to 7.38 degrees north and 7.21 degrees north, respectively. It defines its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 15.42 degrees east and 15.26 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar C has a diminutive diameter of 4.97 kilometers.

Julius Caesar D lies to the southeast of satellite C. The Julius Caesar Crater system's southeasternmost point is centered at 7.19 degrees north latitude, 16.51 degrees east longitude. It realizes northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 7.26 degrees north and 7.11 degrees north, respectively. It observes easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 16.58 degrees east and 16.43 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar D's diminutive diameter measures 4.54 kilometers.

Julius Caesar F's occupancy of the terrain on its parent's northern outskirts distances it from the Julius Caesar Crater system's parental clusters. It is centered at 11.64 degrees north latitude, 12.96 degrees east longitude. Satellite F fixes its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 12.05 degrees north and 11.23 degrees north, respectively. It maintains its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 13.30 degrees east and 12.63 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar F's diameter measures 25.06 kilometers.

Julius Caesar G's position on its parent's northeastern wall opposes satellite B's habitation on the northwestern wall. Satellite G is centered at 10.16 degrees north latitude, 15.75 degrees east longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes stretch to 10.49 degrees north and 9.83 degrees north, respectively. It places its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 16.09 degrees east and 15.41 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar G's diameter measures 20.15 kilometers.

Julius Caesar H resides on its parent's western wall, to the southwest of satellites B and J. Satellite H is centered at 8.77 degrees north latitude, 13.58 degrees east longitude. It establishes its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 8.83 degrees north and 8.72 degrees north, respectively. Its easternmost and westernmost longitudes end at 13.63 degrees east and 13.52 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar H has a diminutive diameter of 3.48 kilometers.

Julius Caesar J is situated on its parent's western wall, to the southwest of satellite B and to the northeast of satellite H. Satellite J is centered at 9.31 degrees north latitude, 13.68 degrees east longitude. Its northernmost and southernmost latitudes are located at 9.36 degrees north and 9.26 degrees north, respectively. It achieves easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 13.73 degrees east and 13.63 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar J's diminutive diameter of 3.12 kilometers qualifies it as the smallest of the Julius Caesar Crater system's 10 satellites.

Julius Caesar P lies the closest of the Julius Caesar Crater system's three northern exterior satellites (F, P, Q) to its parent. Satellite P is centered at 11.17 degrees north latitude, 14.15 degrees east longitude. It finds its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 11.77 degrees north and 10.58 degrees north, respectively. It acknowledges easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 14.76 degrees east and 13.54 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar P's diameter of 36.13 kilometers qualifies it as the largest of the Julius Caesar Crater system's 10 satellites.

Julius Caesar Q is positioned to the north of satellite P and to the northeast of satellite F. Satellite Q is centered at 12.99 degrees north latitude, 13.95 degrees east longitude. The Julius Caesar Crater system's northernmost member records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 13.46 degrees north and 12.52 degrees north, respectively. It registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 14.43 degrees east and 13.46 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar Q's diameter spans 28.57 kilometers.

The Julius Caesar Crater system eponymizes first century BCE Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12, 100 BCE-March 15, 44 BCE). The system's parental crater received official approval of its name in 1935. Adoption of the system's 10 named satellites occurred in 2006.

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Dedication

This post is dedicated to the memory of our beloved blue-eyed brother, Charles, who guided the creation of the Met Opera and Astronomy posts on Earth and Space News. We memorialized our brother in "Our Beloved Blue-Eyed Brother, Charles, With Whom We Are Well Pleased," published on Earth and Space News on Thursday, Nov. 18, 2021, an anniversary of our beloved father's death.

Image credits:

Julius Caesar Crater system in lunar Julius Caesar Quadrangle; Elliot C. Morris and Don E. Wilhelms, Geologic Map of the Julius Caesar Quadrangle of the Moon; IMAP 510 (I-510), LAC-60 (1967), Department of the Interior United States Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the USAF Aeronautical Chart and Information Center: via USGS Publications Warehouse @ https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/i510; via USGS Publications Warehouse @ https://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/0510/plate-1.pdf; via USGS Astrogeology Science Center's Astropedia @ https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/map/Moon/Geology/year-1960/Moon-Geologic-Map-of-the-Julius-Caesar-Quadrangle; via USGS Astrogeology Science Center's Astropedia @ https://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/download/Moon/Geology/year-1960/Moon-Geologic-Map-of-the-Julius-Caesar-Quadrangle.pdf

Elliot C. Morris and Don E. Wilhelms, Geologic Map of the Julius Caesar Quadrangle of the Moon; IMAP 510 (I-510), LAC-60 (1967), Department of the Interior United States Geological Survey, prepared in cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the USAF Aeronautical Chart and Information Center: via USGS Astrogeology Science Center's Astropedia @ https://astropedia.astrogeology.usgs.gov/download/Moon/Geology/year-1960/Moon-Geologic-Map-of-the-Julius-Caesar-Quadrangle.pdf; via USGS Astrogeology Science Center's Astropedia @ https://astrogeology.usgs.gov/search/map/Moon/Geology/year-1960/Moon-Geologic-Map-of-the-Julius-Caesar-Quadrangle

Detail of Lunar Aeronautical Chart (LAC) 60 shows the Julius Caesar Crater system's parent and 10 satellites; (bottom left corner) Hevelius Crater with satellites A, B, E and J; (right center) Hevelius D: image credit NASA/GSFC/ASU, via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature @ https://asc-planetarynames-data.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/Lunar/lac_60_wac.pdf; via via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/2859

For further information:

Elger, Thomas Gwyn. “JULIUS CAESAR.--A large incomplete formation of irregular shape. The wall on the E. is much terraced, and forms a flat 'S' curve. The summit ridge is especially bright, and has a conspicuous little crater upon it. On the W. is a number of narrow longitudinal valleys trending from N. to S., included by a wide valley which constitutes the boundary on this side. The border on the S. consists of a number of low rounded banks, those immediately E. of Sosigenes being traversed by several shallow valleys, which look as if they had been shaped by alluvial action. There is a brilliant little hill at the end of one of these valleys, a few miles E. of Sosigenes. The floor of Julius Caesar is uneven in tone, becoming gradually duskier from S. to N., the northern end ranking among the darkest areas on the lunar surface. There are at least three large circular swellings in the interior. A long low mound, with two or three depressions upon it, bounds the wide valley on the E. side.” Page 56. The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features: First Quadrant West Longitude 20° to 0°, pages 54-66. London [England]: George Philip & Son, 1895.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/moonfulldescript00elgerich/page/56/mode/1up

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/2859

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar A.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10242

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar B.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10243

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar C.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10244

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar D.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10245

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar F.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10246

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar G.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10247

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar H.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10248

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar J.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10249

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Julius Caesar P.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/10250

International Astronomical Union (IAU) / U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. “Mare Serenitatis.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Nomenclature > The Moon. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3686

International Astronomical Union. “Mare Tranquillitatis.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3691

International Astronomical Union. “Mare Vaporum.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3694

Jet Propulsion Laboratory. "PIA12908: Rima Ariadaeus -- A Linear Rille." NASA Photojournal. Image Addition Date: 2009-09-28
Available via NASA JPL Photojournal @ https://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA12908 Available via Planetary Data System (PDS) Ring-Moon Systems Node @ https://pds-rings.seti.org/press_releases/pages/PIA12xxx/PIA12908.html

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

Marriner, Derdriu. "Ides of March 15, 44 BCE, Astronomically Signified the Full Moon Phase." Earth and Space News. Wednesday, March 15, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/03/ides-of-march-15-44-bce-astronomically.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Near Side Julius Caesar Crater Honors Roman General and Statesman." Earth and Space News. Wednesday, March 22, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/03/julius-caesar-crater-parents-10.html

The Moon Wiki. “Julius Caesar.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > J Nomenclature.
Available @ http://the-moon.us/wiki/Julius_Caesar

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Serenitatis.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > S Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Serenitatis

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Tranquillitatis.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > T Nomenclature.
Available @ http://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Tranquillitatis

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Vaporum.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > V Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Vaporum

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Astronomy Encyclopedia: An A-Z Guide to the Universe. New York NY: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

Wednesday, March 22, 2023

Near Side Julius Caesar Crater Honors Roman General and Statesman

Summary: Near side Julius Caesar Crater honors Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar, whose accomplishments included introducing the Julian calendar.

Julius Caesar Crater (left center) neighbors west of Mare Tranquillitatis and south-southwest of Mare Serenitatis on lunar near side's northeastern quadrant; Moon 1:10 million-scale Shaded Relief and Color-coded Topography, Near Side High Resolution: via USGS Astrogeology Science Center / Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature

Lunar near side Julius Caesar Crater honors Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar, whose achievements included the establishment of the Julian calendar.

Julius Caesar Crater occupies the lunar near side's northeastern quadrant. The low northern latitude impact crater resides near the moon's prime meridian, which marks zero degrees longitude on the lunar disc.

Julius Caesar Crater is centered at 9.17 degrees north latitude, 15.21 degrees east longitude, according to the International Astronomical Union’s (IAU) Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. The northern hemisphere crater records northernmost and southernmost latitudes of 10.56 degrees north and 7.77 degrees north, respectively. The eastern hemisphere crater registers easternmost and westernmost longitudes of 16.63 degrees east and 13.80 degrees east, respectively. Julius Caesar Crater has a diameter of 84.72 kilometers.

Caesar's impact crater lies near the northwestern edges of Mare Tranquillitatis ("Sea of Tranquility"). Its location places it south-southwest of Mare Serenitatis ("Sea of Serenity") and southwest of Sinus Honoris ("Bay of Honor"), the Sea of Tranquility's northern and northwestern neighbors.

Mare Tranquillitatis is centered at 8.35 degrees north latitude, 30.83 degrees east longitude. Northernmost and southernmost latitudes for the lunar mare (Latin: mare, "sea"; plural, maria, "seas") touch 19.37 degrees north and minus 4.05 degrees south, respectively. The dark, basaltic plain's easternmost and westernmost longitudes tap 45.49 degrees east and 16.92 degrees east, respectively. Mare Tranquillitatis has a diameter of 875.75 kilometers.

Mare Serenitatis is centered at 27.29 degrees north latitude, 18.36 degrees east longitude. Northernmost and southernmost latitudes for the lunar mare reach 37.81 degrees north and 16.13 degrees north, respectively. The dark plain's easternmost and westernmost longitudes extend to 29.92 degrees east and 6.59 degrees east, respectively. Mare Serenitatis has a diameter of 674.28 kilometers.

Sinus Honoris is centered at 11.72 degrees north latitude, 17.87 degrees east longitude. The small northern hemisphere-sited plain (Latin: sinus, "bay") finds its northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 13.26 degrees north and 9.92 degrees north, respectively. The eastern hemisphere bay obtains its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 19.26 degrees east and 15.49 degrees east, respectively. Sinus Honoris has a diameter of 111.61 kilometers.

Julius Caesar Crater is situated to the west-northwest of Sosigenes Crater's location on the western edge of Mare Tranquillitatis. Sosigenes Crater is centered at 8.70 degrees east latitude, 17.60 degrees east longitude. The northern hemisphere-dwelling circular impact crater realizes northernmost and southernmost latitudes at 8.98 degrees north and 8.42 degrees north, respectively. The eastern hemisphere-sited bright crater recognizes its easternmost and westernmost longitudes at 17.88 degrees east and 17.31 degrees east, respectively. Sosigenes Crater's diameter measures 16.99 kilometers.

"A large incomplete formation of irregular shape," assessed British selenographer Thomas Gwyn Empy Elger (Oct. 27, 1836-Jan. 9, 1897) in his description of Julius Caesar Crater in his Victorian era lunar guide, The Moon: A Full Description and Map of Its Principal Physical Features, published in 1895. "The floor of Julius Caesar is uneven in tone, becoming gradually duskier from S. to N., the northern end ranking among the darkest areas on the lunar surface" (page 56).

In his lunar descriptions, Elger followed the convention of correlating east and west on the moon with the observer's eastern and western horizons. Consequently, he referenced Julius Caesar Crater's heavily worn western wall as eastern. "The wall on the E. is much terraced and forms a flat 'S' curve."

The International Astronomical Union officially approved Julius Caesar Crater’s name in 1935, during the organization’s Vth (5th) General Assembly, held Wednesday, July 10, to Wednesday, July 17, in Paris, France. Lunar Crater Julius Caesar honors first century BCE Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12, 100 BCE-March 15, 44 BCE).

Julius Caesar's achievements expand beyond military campaigns and statesmanship to include an astronomical contribution. In 46 BCE, during his third of five consulships, Caesar considered the dissatisfactory irregularities in the lunar-based Roman calendar, according to Greek biographer Plutarch (46 BCE-ca. 122 CE) in Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly known as Parallel Lives.

"The adjustment of the calendar, however, and the correction of the irregularity in the computation of time, were not only studied scientifically by him, but also brought to completion, and proved to be of the highest utility. For not only in very ancient times was the relation of the lunar to the solar year in great confusion among the Romans, so that the sacrificial feasts and festivals, diverging gradually, at last fell in opposite seasons of the year, but also at this time people generally had no way of computing the actual solar year; the priests alone knew the proper time, and would suddenly and to everybody's surprise insert the intercalary month called Mercedonius. . . . But Caesar laid the problem before the best philosophers and mathematicians, and out of the methods of correction which were already at hand compounded one of his own which was more accurate than any," according to the translation (volume VII, page 579, 581) first published in 1919 by American classicist Bernadotte Perrin (Sep. 15, 1847-Aug. 31, 1920).

Caesar's new solar-based calendar took effect Jan. 1, 45 BCE, during his fourth consulship. The Julian calendar's first year lasted a lengthy 445 days. Its lengthiness reconciled Roman Calendar problems, such as seasonal drift-occasioned discrepancy between the calendar and the tropical year of the full annual solar cycle. Beginning in 44 BCE, during Caesar's fifth consulship, his calendar observed 365 days, with the addition of an extra day every fourth year.

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Dedication

image of Julius Caesar Crater, spliced 2013 by Wikimedia user James Stuby (Jstuby at English Wikipedia) from Frames 4090 h1 and h2 obtained during NASA's Lunar Orbiter IV mission, which acquired photographic data (419 high resolution and 127 medium resolution frames) from May 11 to 26, 1967: James Stuby at English Wikipedia, CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Julius_Caesar_crater_4090_h1_4090_h2.jpg; via USRA LPI (Lunar and Planetary Institute) @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter/frame/?4090

For further information:

Bell, E., II. "Lunar Orbiter 4 NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1967-041A." NASA GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) NSSDCA (NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive) > NSSDCA Master Catalog Search.
Available @ https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1967-041A

Celoria, Giovanni. "Tavola VII. Ultimo quarto della Luna. Gassendi, vasto cratere lunare, poco dopo il sorgere del Sole. Julius Caesar, allo spuntar del Sole." Opposite page 10. Atlante Astronomico: XXXIX Tavole Miniate Con Testo e Illustrazioni. Capitolo II: La Luna, pages 9-16. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1890.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/CeloriaAtlanteAstronomico/page/n22/mode/1up

Celoria, Giovanni. "Tavola IV-V. Carta Della Luna." Atlante Astronomico: XXXIX Tavole Miniate Con Testo e Illustrazioni. Capitolo II: La Luna, pages 9-16. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1890.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/CeloriaAtlanteAstronomico/page/n17/mode/2up

Consolmagno, Guy; and Dan M. Davis. Turn Left at Orion. Fourth edition. Cambridge UK; New York NY: Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Grout, James. "The Consular Year: . . . . The assassination of Julius Caesar occurred, not in 710 AUC (44 BC), but in the fifth year of his consulship and the first year of Mark Antony's. . . ." James Grout's Encyclopaedia Romana > Notae > The Roman Calendar.
Available @ https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/calendar/consuls.html

International Astronomical Union. "Sinus, sinūs SI.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature > Documentation > Descriptor Terms (Feature Types). Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3691

International Astronomical Union. “Sinus Honoris.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3691

International Astronomical Union. “Sosigenes.” USGS Astrogeology Science Center > Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature. Last updated Oct. 18, 2010, 12:00 p.m.
Available @ https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5653

Levy, David H. Skywatching. Revised and updated. San Francisco CA: Fog City Press, 1994.

The Moon Wiki. “IAU Directions: The convention that 'east' on the Moon is the direction towards Mare Crisium, and 'west' is in the direction towards Grimaldi.” The Moon > Glossary > Acronyms and abbreviations.
Available @ http://the-moon.us/wiki/IAU_directions

The Moon Wiki. “Julius Caesar.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > J Nomenclature.
Available @ http://the-moon.us/wiki/Julius_Caesar

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Serenitatis.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > S Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Serenitatis

The Moon Wiki. “Mare Tranquillitatis.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > T Nomenclature.
Available @ http://the-moon.us/wiki/Mare_Tranquillitatis

The Moon Wiki. “Sinus Honoris.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > H Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Sinus_Honoris

The Moon Wiki. “Sosigenes.” The Moon > Lunar Features Alphabetically > S Nomenclature.
Available @ https://the-moon.us/wiki/Sosigenes

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Astronomy Encyclopedia: An A-Z Guide to the Universe. New York NY: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.

Moore, Patrick, Sir. Philip’s Atlas of the Universe. Revised edition. London UK: Philip’s, 2005.

NASA Lunar Orbiter IV. "Frame 4090 Mission: Lunar Orbiter 4." Lunar Orbiter Photo Gallery > Browse Image Catalog > Lunar Orbiter IV > Lunar Orbiter Photo Gallery Mission 4.
Available via USRA LPI (Lunar and Planetary Institute) @ https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/lunarorbiter/frame/?4090

Perrin, Bernadotte. "Caesar. LIX. The adjustment of the calendar, however, and the correction of the irregularity in the computation of time, were not only studied scientifically by him, but also brought to completion, and proved to be of the highest utility. For not only in very ancient times was the relation of the lunar to the solar year in great confusion among the Romans, so that the sacrificial feasts and festivals, diverging gradually, at last fell in opposite seasons of the year, but also at this time people generally had no way of computing the actual solar year; the priests alone knew the proper time, and would suddenly and to everybody's surprise insert the intercalary month called Mercedonius. . . . But Caesar laid the problem before the best philosophers and mathematicians, and out of the methods of correction which were already at hand compounded one of his own which was more accurate than any." Pages 579, 581. Plutarch's Lives. Vol. VII Demosthenes and Cicero, Alexander and Caesar. First printed 1919. Reprinted 1928, 1949, 1958, 1967. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd., MCMLXVII [1967]).
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives07plut/page/579/mode/1up

Planck, Andrew. "Moon Craters Aristoteles and Julius Caesar." Andrew Planck > Blog. Nov. 28, 2022.
Available @ http://andrewplanck.com/moon-craters-aristoteles-and-julius-caesar/

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