Earth and Space News: Cleopatra son Caesarion

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Thursday, September 7, 2023

Cleopatra's Sons Disappeared But Her Daughter Was Queen of Mauretania

Summary: Cleopatra's three sons disappeared but her only daughter, who lived for approximately 25 years after her mother's death, became Queen of Mauretania.

melon-coiffed marble portrait credited as Cleopatra's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, ca. 10-1 BCE, found ca. 1856 near Juba II and Cleopatra Selene's palace in Caesarea (modern-day Cherchell), Algeria; detail of image of Cleopatra Selene, extracted Aug. 22, 2020, from June 18, 2018, image: Hichem algerino, CC BY SA 4.0 International, via Wikimedia Commons

Last Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra's three sons disappeared soon after her death in 30 BCE, but her only daughter married, had two children and became Queen of Mauretania in a lifespan that extended approximately 25 years after her mother's death.

Cleopatra VII Philopator (Ancient Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ, Kleopatra Philopator; ca. 69-Aug. 10 or 12, 30 BCE) birthed four known children. Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12 or 13, 100-March 15, 44 BCE) fathered Ptolemy XV Caesar Philopator Philometor (Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ, Ptolemaios Kaisar Philopator Philometor, "Ptolemy Caesar, Beloved of his Father, Beloved of his Mother"; 47-30 BCE), known as Caesarion (Ancient Greek: Καισαρίων, Kaisarion, "Little Caesar"). Cleopatra's first child and first son is considered as Julius Caesar's only known biological son.

Roman militarian and politician Marcus Antonius "Mark Antony" (Jan. 14, 83-Aug. 1, 30 BCE) fathered three children with Cleopatra. Fraternal twins Cleopatra Selene II (Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Σελήνη, Kleopatra Selene, "Cleopatra the Moon") and Alexander Helios (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος Ἥλιος, Alexandros Helios, "Alexander the Sun") were born in 40 BCE as Cleopatra's second daughter and second son, respectively. Ptolemy Philadelphus (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος ὁ Φιλάδελφος, Ptolemaios Philadelphos) was born in 36 BCE as the last Ptolemaic queen's third son and fourth child.

The deaths of Mark Antony, firstly, and of Cleopatra, soon thereafter, in August 30 BCE orphaned the four children. Their Ptolemaic descent placed them at the mercy of the Macedonian Greek royal dynasty's overthrower, Gaius Octavius "Octavian" (Sep. 23, 63 BCE-Aug. 19, 14 CE). Octavian had become Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus in 44 BCE as adopted son and heir of his assassinated maternal great uncle, Julius Caesar. Octavian's name change to Caesar Augustus beginning in January 27 BCE signaled the transformation of the Roman Republic as the Ptolemaic Kingdom's (305-30 BCE) replacer into the Roman Empire.

In summer 30 BCE, prior to her August death, Cleopatra had assessed the safety of her four children, according to British Egyptologist Joann Fletcher (born Aug. 30, 1966) in Cleopatra the Great (Part Six, Chapter 11 The Final Year: Defeat, Death and Eternal Life, pages 306-307), published in 2011. She evacuated her three youngest children, accompanied by their tutor Euphronios, to the safety of her supporters in Thebes, Upper Egypt (Southern Egypt). But she sent Caesarion, targeted as her Ptolemaic heir, to refuge, in the company of his tutor, Rhodon, in India, according to Greek biographer Plutarch (46 BCE-ca. 122 CE) in Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly known as Parallel Lives.

"Cleopatra's children, together with their attendants, were kept under guard and had generous treatment. But Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia," narrated Plutarch in his biography of "Antony," according to American classicist Bernadotte Perrin's (Sep. 15, 1847-Aug. 31, 1920) translation, published in 1920 (Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 318-321).

Yet, Rhodon's duplicitous insistence of Octavian's intention of passing the Ptolemaic Kingdom to its rightful heir convinced Caesarion to make a fateful decision. Meanwhile, first century BCE Alexandrian philosopher Areius has been credited with a pithy persuasion of Octavian against mercy.

"There Rhodon . . . persuaded him to go back, on the ground that Caesar invited him to take the kingdom. But while Caesar was deliberating on the matter, we are told that Areius said: -- Not a good thing were a Caesar too many. As for Caesarion, then, he was afterwards put to death by Caesar, -- after the death of Cleopatra" (Bernadotte Perrin translation; Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 320-321).

In addition to Caesarion, Octavian ordered the execution of Marcus Antonius Antyllus (47 BCE-Aug. 23, 30 BCE), designated as his father's heir. Known as Antyllus ("the Archer"), he was the older of two sons born to Mark Antony and his third wife, Fulvia (ca. 83-40 BCE).

With removal of the two heirs, Octavian blended Cleopatra's offspring with Mark Antony's other children in the home of his sister, Octavia the Younger (Latin: Octavia Minor; ca. 66/69-11 BCE). Octavia had numbered as Mark Antony's fourth wife. Her household already included the two Antonias (Antonia Major, Antonia Minor), her two daughters fathered by Mark Antony. In referring to the blended household, Plutarch only mentioned Cleopatra's daughter. Her two Antonine sons were not referenced.

"Antony left seven children by his three wives, of whom Antyllus, the eldest, was the only one who was put to death by Caesar; the rest were taken up by Octavia and reared with her own children. Cleopatra, the daughter of Cleopatra, Octavia gave in marriage to Juba, the most accomplished of kings . . ." (Bernadotte Perrin translation; Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 330-331).

Cleopatra Selene II's husband, Mauretanian King Juba II, joined her in vanishment, as their burial sites are unknown and the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania stands as an empty memorial; bronze bust of Juba II, ca. 20 BCE, collection of Museum of History and Civilizations in Rabat (Arabic: متحف التاريخ والحضارات, French: Musée de l'histoire et des civilisations), northwestern coastal Morocco: Françoise Foliot, CC BY SA 4.0 International, via Wikimedia Commons

Cleopatra Selene's twin, Alexander Helios, and their younger brother, Ptolemy Philadelphus, disappeared from Rome-supporting sources after 25 BCE. The last official sighting of Alexander occurred during Octavian's triple Roman triumphs, held Aug. 13 through Aug. 15, 29 BCE. The Senate-granted civil ceremony lavishly celebrated Octavian's victories in his campaigns in south central and southeastern Europe's Illyricum, 35 to 33 BCE, and against Cleopatra and Mark Antony in the Battle of Actium, Sep. 2, 31 BCE, and in the siege of Alexandria, Aug. 1, 30 BCE.

Only Alexander and Cleopatra Selene were identified as suffering through the humiliating event by Roman historian Lucius Cassius Dio (ca. 155-235 CE), known as Dio Cassius, in Roman History (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία, Historia Romana), his historical compendium of ancient Rome, written in Greek. Ptolemy Philadelphus possibly had predeceased the event. His succumbence to his first, and last, cold Roman winter in 29 BCE has been suggested by American Classicist Duane Roller (born Oct. 7, 1946) in The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene (page 84), published in 2003, and by Joann Fletcher (Cleopatra the Great, Part Six, Chapter 12 Epilogue: The Aftermath, page 333).

"On the second day the naval victory at Actium was commemorated, and on the third the subjugation of Egypt. Now all the processions proved notable thanks to the spoils from Egypt, -- in such quantities, indeed, had spoils been gathered there that they sufficed for all the processions, -- but the Egyptian celebration surpassed them all in costliness and magnificence. Among other features, an effigy of the dead Cleopatra upon a couch was carried by, so that in a way she, too, together with the other captives and with her children, Alexander, called also Helios, and Cleopatra, called also Selene, was a part of the spectacle and a trophy in the procession," Dio Cassius stated, according to American classicist Earnest Cary's (Feb. 25, 1879-) translation, published in 1955 (Dio's Roman History, Vol. VI, Book LI: 21.7-21.8, pages 61-62).

Cleopatra Selene's Octavian-approved marriage to Juba II (Latin: Gaius Iulius Iuba; Ancient Greek: Ἰóβας, Ἰóβα or Ἰούβας; ca. 48 BCE-23 CE), King of Mauretania in northwestern Africa, took place in 25 BCE, approximately five years after her parents' deaths. The marriage occasioned exemptions for the bride's two brothers from suffering the fate of their half-brother, Caesarion, according to Dio Cassius.

"Cleopatra was married to Juba, the son of Juba; for to this man who had been brought up in Italy and had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave both the maid and the kingdom of his fathers, and as a favour to them spared the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy," Dio Cassius stated (Earnest Cary translation; Dio's Roman History, vol. VI, Book LI: 15.6, page 43).

Cleopatra Selene joined her brothers in vanishment after her death in 5 BCE. She was entombed in the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania, located east of the Mauretanian capital of Caesarea (modern-day Cherchell, Algeria). The mausoleum also was the burial site for her husband, who died 18 years later, in 23 CE. Yet, no trace of the couple remains in the mausoleum, according to travel writer Ethel Davies in North Africa: The Roman Coast (Part One, Chapter 1 Background Information: The Romans, page 11), published in 2009.

As with her mother's and father's tomb and burial sites of her half-brother and her two brothers, Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, along with her husband, lacks a gravesite.

The resting place of the last Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra's daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, mystifies modern-day researchers, voyagers and armchair travelers, as the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania has been found to be an empty tomb; "James Bruce, 1730–1794, British, Tomb de la Chretienne / Juba and Cleopatra, ca. 1769, Watercolor, pen and brown ink, black ink, gouache, gray wash and graphite on moderately thick, moderately textured, cream laid paper, Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection, B1977.14.9090": Public Domain, via Yale Center for British Art

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Dedication

This post is dedicated to the memory of our beloved blue-eyed brother, Charles, who guided the creation of the Met Opera and Astronomy posts on Earth and Space News. We memorialized our brother in "Our Beloved Blue-Eyed Brother, Charles, With Whom We Are Well Pleased," published on Earth and Space News on Thursday, Nov. 18, 2021, an anniversary of our beloved father's death.

Image credits:

The resting place of the last Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra's daughter, Cleopatra Selene II, Queen of Mauretania, mystifies modern-day researchers, voyagers and armchair travelers, as the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania has been found to be an empty tomb; "James Bruce, 1730–1794, British, Tomb de la Chretienne/ Juba and Cleopatra, ca. 1769, Watercolor, pen and brown ink, black ink, gouache, gray wash and graphite on moderately thick, moderately textured, cream laid paper, Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection, B1977.14.9090": Public Domain, via Yale Center for British Art @ https://collections.britishart.yale.edu/catalog/tms:15508; Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tomb_of_Juba_II_and_Cleopatra_Selene_(James_Bruce).jpg

For further information:

Beard, Mary. "Who Was Cleopatra’s Daughter? The perils of searching for feminist heroes in antiquity." The Atlantic. June 2023 issue. May 12, 2023.
Available @ https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/06/cleopatra-selene-daughter-book-draycott-biography/673786/

Davies, Ethel. North Africa: The Roman Coast. The Bradt Travel Guide. 2009.
Available via Google Books Preview @ https://www.google.com/books/edition/North_Africa/H4QeOGV_zl4C?hl=en

Draycott, Jane. "Dynastic Politics, Defeat, Decadence and Dining: Cleopatra Selene on the So-Called 'Africa' Dish From the Villa della Pisanella at Boscoreale." Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 80 (2012): 45-64.
Available via JSTOR @ https://www.jstor.org/stable/41725316

Draycott, Jane; and Sam Haselby, ed. "The other Cleopatra: Daughter of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, she became the influential queen of a mysterious, abundant North African kingdom." Aeon > Essays.
Available via Aeon @ https://aeon.co/essays/there-was-another-more-successful-queen-cleopatra

Ferroukhi, Mafoud (M.F.). "197 Marble portrait, perhaps of Cleopatra VII's daughter, Cleopatra Selene, Queen of Mauretania." Page 219. In: Susan Walker and Peter Higgs, eds., Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth. First published in 2001 by The British Museum Press, a division of The British Museum Company Limited. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/page/219/mode/1up

Fletcher, Joann, Dr. Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. New York: Harper Collins, 1988.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet/page/n6/mode/1up

Fletcher, Joann. "Marble head of Cleopatra VII set up by her daughter Cleopatra Selene in her capital Iol Caesarea (modern Algeria)." Opposite page 247. Cleopatra the Great.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet/page/n267/mode/1up

Kilani, Marwan. "7. Contacts between Egypt and India during the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: An Overview of the Evidence." Pages 91-101. In: Christian Langer, ed., Global Egyptology: Negotiations in the Production of Knowledges on Ancient Egypt in Global Contexts. Part III -- Late Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman Ideology and Interconnections. GHP Egyptology 26. London: Golden House Publications, Oct. 17, 2017.
Available @ https://www.academia.edu/38147247/Contacts_between_Egypt_and_India_during_the_Ptolemaic_and_Roman_Periods_An_Overview_of_the_Evidence

Lucius Cassius Dio. ". . . . Cleopatra was married to Juba, the son of Juba; for to this man who had been brought up in Italy and had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave both the maid and the kingdom of his fathers, and as a favour to them spared the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy. . . ." Book LI: 15.5-15.6, page 43. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/43/mode/1up

Lucius Cassius Dio. ". . . . On the second day the naval victory at Actium was commemorated, and on the third the subjugation of Egypt. Now all the processions proved notable thanks to the spoils from Egypt, -- in such quantities, indeed, had spoils been gathered there that they sufficed for all the processions, -- but the Egyptian celebration surpassed them all in costliness and magnificence. Among other features, an effigy of the dead Cleopatra upon a couch was carried by, so that in a way she, too, together with the other captives and with her children, Alexander, called also Helios, and Cleopatra, called also Selene, was a part of the spectacle and a trophy in the procession. . . ." Book LI: 21.7-21.8, pages 61-62. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/61/mode/1up

Marriner, Derdriu. "Caesarion Sought to Refuge in India But Was Lured Away To Be Murdered." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 25, 2022.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2022/08/caesarion-sought-to-refuge-in-india-but.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Cleopatra Had Planned Flight From Egypt But Nabateans Burned Her Ships." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Sep. 1, 2022.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2022/09/cleopatra-had-planned-flight-from-egypt.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Cleopatra or Caesarion Could Have Refuged in Five Ports in Western India." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Sep. 8, 2022.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2022/09/cleopatra-or-caesarion-could-have.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Cleopatra's Needle in London Associates Cleopatra With Julius Caesar." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 10, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/08/cleopatras-needle-in-london-associates.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Cleopatra's Needle in New York Associates Cleopatra With Julius Caesar." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 17, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/08/cleopatras-needle-in-new-york.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Cleopatra's Needles: Heliopolis to Alexandria to London and New York." Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 3, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/08/cleopatras-needles-heliopolis-to.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Did Cleopatra Kill Herself Or, As With Her First Son, Was She Killed?" Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 24, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/08/did-cleopatra-kill-herself-or-as-with.html

Marriner, Derdriu. "Is Cleopatra's Tomb at Taposiris Magna Or Will It Never Be Found?" Earth and Space News. Thursday, Aug. 31, 2023.
Available @ https://earth-and-space-news.blogspot.com/2023/08/is-cleopatras-tomb-at-taposiris-magna.html

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXI. As for the children of Antony, Antyllus, his son by Fulvia, was betrayed by Theodorus his tutor and put to death; and after the soldiers had cut off his head, his tutor took away the exceeding precious stone which the boy wore about his neck and sewed it into his own girdle; and though he denied the deed, he was convicted of it and crucified. [2] Cleopatra's children, together with their attendants, were kept under guard and had generous treatment. But Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the ground that Caesar invited him to take the kingdom. But while Caesar was deliberating on the matter, we are told that Areius said: -- Not a good thing were a Caesar too many." Pages 318-321. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/318/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D81

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXII. As for Caesarion, then, he was afterwards put to death by Caesar, -- after the death of Cleopatra; but as for Antony, though many generals and kings asked for his body that they might give it burial, Caesar would not take it away from Cleopatra, and it was buried by her hands in sumptuous and royal fashion, such things being granted her for the purpose as she desired. But in consequence of so much grief as well as pain (for her breasts were wounded and inflamed by the blows she gave them) a fever assailed her, and she welcomed it as an excuse for abstaining from food and so releasing herself from life without hindrance. [2] Moreover, there was a physician in her company of intimates, Olympus, to whom she told the truth, and she had his counsel and assistance in compassing her death, as Olympus himself testifies in a history of these events which he published. But Caesar was suspicious, and plied her with threats and fears regarding her children, by which she was laid low, as by engines of war, and surrendered her body for such care and nourishment as was desired." Pages 320-321. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/320/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D82

Rolfe, J.C. (John Carew). ". . . . He allowed them both the honour of burial, and in the same tomb, giving orders that the mausoleum which they had begun should be finished. The young Antony, the elder of Fulvia's two sons, he dragged from the image of the Deifird Julius, to which he had flet after many vain entreaties, and slew him. Caesarion, too, whom Cleopatra fathered on Caesar, he overtook in his flight, brought back, and put to death. But he spared the rest of the offspring of Antony and Cleopatra, and afterwards maintained and reared them according to their several positions, as carefully as if they were his own kin." Pages 147-148, Book II The Deified Augustus. Suetonius The Lives of the Caesars, vol. I. In two volumes. Loeb Classical Library. London: William Heinemann; New York: The Macmillan Co., MCMXIV [1914].
Available @ https://archive.org/details/L031SuetoniusTheLivesOfTheCaesarsI/page/n177/mode/2up

van Oppen de Ruiter, Branko. "Monsters of Military Might: Elephants in Hellenistic History and Art." Arts, vol. 8, issue 4 (December 2019): 160. Available via MDPI @ https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0752/8/4
Available via ResearchGate @ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337762748_Monsters_of_Military_Might_Elephants_in_Hellenistic_History_and_Art

Walker, Susan; and Peter Higgs, eds. Cleopatra of Egypt: From History to Myth. First published in 2001 by The British Museum Press, a division of The British Museum Company Limited. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatraofegypt0000unse/

Thursday, August 24, 2023

Did Cleopatra Kill Herself Or, As With Her First Son, Was She Killed?

Summary: Did Cleopatra kill herself, possibly with an asp hidden in a basket of figs, or, as with her first son, was she killed by order of Octavian?

Polydeukes numbered as one of three favorite students adopted as foster sons by Herodes Atticus; Tuesday, Jan. 3, 2012, 16:41, image of ca. 165 CE marble bust of Polydeukes; Altes Museum (English: Old Museum), Museum Island (German: Museumsinsel), northern Spree Island, historic central Berlin, northeastern Germany: Ophelia2, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Did Cleopatra kill herself, popularly imagined as from the bite of an asp hidden in a basket of figs, or, as with her Julius Caesar-fathered first son, Caesarion, was she killed by order of her nemesis, Octavian, Julius Caesar's great-nephew, adopted son and heir?

Cleopatra VII Philopator (Ancient Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ, Kleopatra Philopator; ca. 69-Aug. 10 or 12, 30 BCE) reigned as the last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt from the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus (Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Νέος Διόνυσος, Ptolemaios Neos Dionysos, "Ptolemy the new Dionysus"; ca. 117-51 BCE), known commonly as Ptolemy XII Auletes (Greek: Αὐλητής, Auletes, "the Flautist"), in March 51 BCE until her own death in her hometown of Alexandria, on the Mediterranean Sea's southeastern coast, in 30 BCE. Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12 or 13, 100-March 15, 44 BCE) fathered Ptolemy XV Caesar Philopator Philometor (Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ, Ptolemaios Kaisar Philopator Philometor, "Ptolemy Caesar, Beloved of his Father, Beloved of his Mother"; 47-30 BCE), known as Caesarion (Ancient Greek: Καισαρίων, Kaisarion, "Little Caesar"), as Cleopatra's first child and first son and as his only known son. Julius Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March, March 15, in 44 BCE, in Rome. At the time of his assassination, Cleopatra and their son were staying in Horti Caesaris, his gardened villa located beyond Rome's southern wall on the Tiber River's right bank.

Approximately 14 years five and one-half months after Caesar's assassination, Cleopatra and Caesarion died. Gaius Octavius "Octavian" (Sep. 23, 63 BCE-Aug. 19, 14 CE), known as Caesar Augustus beginning in January 27 BCE, was responsible for their deaths, according to Cleopatra-detracting Greek biographer Plutarch (46 BCE-ca. 122 CE). His biography of Cleopatra's second Roman lover, militarian and politician Marcus Antonius "Mark Antony" (Jan. 14, 83-Aug. 1, 30 BCE), in Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly known as Parallel Lives, reported that Octavian ordered the execution of Caesarion and that his humiliating house arrest of Cleopatra terrorized her into seeing suicide as her only dignified escape.

Cleopatra's decision to commit suicide followed the revelation by Cornelius Dolabella, one of Octavian's retinue, that Octavian was planning to send her and her children away from Alexandria in three days. The captive queen's suicide plan necessitated a basket of figs.

Cleopatra ". . . ordered a bath to be prepared for herself. After her bath, she reclined at table and was making a sumptuous meal. And there came a man from the country carrying a basket; and when the guards asked him what he was bringing there, he opened the basket, took away the leaves, and showed them that the dish inside was full of figs. The guards were amazed at the great size and beauty of the figs, whereupon the man smiled and asked them to take some; so they felt no mistrust and bade him take them in. After her meal, however, Cleopatra took a tablet which was already written upon and sealed, and sent it to Caesar, and then, sending away all the rest of the company except her two faithful women, she closed the doors. But Caesar opened the tablet, and when he found there lamentations and supplications of one who begged that he would bury her with Antony, he quickly knew what had happened. At first he was minded to go himself and give aid; then he ordered messengers to go with all speed and investigate. But the mischief had been swift. For though his messengers came on the run and found the guards as yet aware of nothing, when they opened the doors they found Cleopatra lying dead upon a golden couch, arrayed in royal state. And of her two women, the one called Iras was dying at her feet, while Charmion, already tottering and heavy-headed, was trying to arrange the diadem which encircled the queen's brow. Then somebody said in anger: ‘A fine deed, this, Charmion!’ ‘It is indeed most fine,’ she said, ‘and befitting the descendant of so many kings.’ Not a word more did she speak, but fell there by the side of the couch," Plutarch narrated, according to American classicist Bernadotte Perrin's (Sep. 15, 1847-Aug. 31, 1920) translation, published in 1920 (Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 326-329).

Cleopatra's method of suicide has eluded history, according to Cleopatra-despising Roman historian Lucius Cassius Dio (ca. 155-235 CE), known as Dio Cassius, in Roman History (Ῥωμαϊκὴ Ἱστορία, Historia Romana), his historical compendium of ancient Rome, written in Greek. He suggested two possibilities.

"No one knows clearly in what way she perished, for the only marks on her body were slight pricks on the arm. Some say she applied to herself an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar, or perhaps hidden in some flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a pin, with which she was wont to fasten her hair, with some poison possessed of such a property that in ordinary circumstances it would not injure the body at all, but if it came into contact with even a drop of blood would destroy the body very quietly and painlessly; and that previous to this time she had worn it in her hair as usual, but now had made a slight scratch on her arm and had dipped the pin in the blood. In this or in some very similar way she perished, and her two handmaidens with her," Dio Cassius surmised, according to American classicist Earnest Cary's (Feb. 25, 1879-) translation, published in 1955 (Dio's Roman History, Vol. IX, Book LXXIII.5, page 81).

Gaius Octavius became Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus as adopted son and heir of his great uncle, Julius Caesar, in 44 BCE; he ordered the execution of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar's son, Caesarion; Cleopatra's suicide in August 30 BCE ended Octavian's humiliating house arrest of her; elimination of Cleopatra and Caesarion facilitated Rome's absorption of Egypt into the Roman Republic and, three years later, into the Roman Empire; Saturday, July 12, 2014, image of bronze head of Octavian, ca. 27-25 BCE, from over-life-sized statue, found at Meroë, ancient Nubian site on east bank of Nile, southern capital of Kingdom of Kush; British Museum, London: Carole Raddato, CC BY SA 2.0 Generic, via Wikimedia Commons

Octavian's astoundment at Cleopatra's notification of her suicidal intention revealed his underestimation of his captive's determination and inner strength. In a well-being check in which he found "her hair and face . . . in terrible disarray, her voice trembled, and her eyes . . . sunken," he had ascertained "that she desired to live . . . . Then he went off, supposing that he had deceived her, but the rather deceived by her" (Bernadotte Perrin translation; Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 320-325).

Octavian resorted to drugs and the Psylii in his delusional rejection of Cleopatra's seeming demise. The Psylii were a Libyan tribe anciently regarded as snake whisperers, especially skilled as serpentine poison suckers, according to English lexicographer Sir William Smith (May 20, 1813-Oct. 7, 1893) in Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, published in 1854.

"When Caesar heard of Cleopatra's death, he was astounded, and not only viewed her body but also made use of drugs and Psylli in the hope that she might revive. These Psylli are males, for there is no woman born in their tribe, and they have the power to suck out any poison of any reptile, if use is made of them immediately, before the victim dies; and they are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their offspring either by having them thrown among serpents as soon as they are born or else by having their swaddling-clothes thrown upon serpents; for the reptiles in the one case do no harm to the child, and in the other case are benumbed by its clothing. So much for this matter. But Caesar, when he could not in any way resuscitate Cleopatra, felt both admiration and pity for her, and was excessively grieved on his own account, as if he had been deprived of all the glory of his victory," Dio Cassius explained (Earnest Cary translation; Dio's Roman History, Vol. VI, Book LI.14.1-14.6, pages 38-41).

Plutarch blamed first century BCE Alexandrian philosopher and Augustus influencer Areius for his decision to execute Caesarion. "As for the children of Antony, Antyllus, his son by Fulvia, was betrayed by Theodorus his tutor and put to death . . . Cleopatra's children, together with their attendants, were kept under guard and had generous treatment. But Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the ground that Caesar invited him to take the kingdom. But while Caesar was deliberating on the matter, we are told that Areius said: -- Not a good thing were a Caesar too many," Plutarch recounted (Bernadotte Perrin translation; Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 318-321).

Caesarion's execution succeeded Cleopatra's demise. "As for Caesarion, then, he was afterwards put to death by Caesar, -- after the death of Cleopatra," Plutarch stated (Bernadotte Perrin translation; Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 320-321).

Did Cleopatra kill herself or was she killed, as with her and Julius Caesar's son, by Octavian's order? Her death and Caesarion's demise eliminated the greatest threats to his securement of treasured Egypt as a province for the Roman Republic and, three years later in 27 BCE, for the Roman Empire.

The depiction of Cleopatra as "a mythic temptress" and as "a fearsome and loathsome manipulator" facilitated Rome's absorption of Egypt, according to American Egyptologist Jacquelyn Williamson in "Cleopatra and Fake News: How ancient Roman political needs created a mythic temptress," published Oct. 20, 2017, as a Folger Shakespeare Library blog. "After her death there was no one but the conquerors of her kingdom to perpetuate her name," observed U.S. naval officer Henry H. (Honychurch) Gorringe (Aug. 11, 1841-July 7, 1885) in Egyptian Obelisks (Cleopatra's Needles and Other Egyptian Obelisks, Chapter II The Archaeology of the New York Obelisk -- Historical, page 73), published in 1882.

image of Cleopatra, photographed from coins found under obelisk in Alexandria and finished as portrait in 1881 by Louis Mounier (Louis Jules Gabriel Mounier; Dec. 21, 1852-1937); H.H. Gorringe, Egyptian Obelisks (1882), opposite page 72: Not in copyright, via Internet Archive

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Dedication

"Cleopatra and the Peasant," 1838 oil on canvas by French Romantic artist Eugène Delacroix (Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix; April 26, 1798-Aug. 13, 1863), in collection of Ackland Art Museum, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, central North Carolina: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eugène_Delacroix_-_Cleopatra_and_the_Peasant_-_WGA06196.jpg

"ΚΛΕΟΠΑΤΡΑΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΙΣΣΗΣ," image of Cleopatra, photographed from coins found under obelisk in Alexandria and finished as portrait in 1881 by Louis Mounier (Louis Jules Gabriel Mounier; Dec. 21, 1852-1937); H.H. Gorringe, Egyptian Obelisks (1882), opposite page 72: Not in copyright, via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/egyptianobelisks00gorruoft/page/n162/mode/1up

For further information:

Fletcher, Joann, Dr. "Indeed, it was said that 'she pretty well satisfied herself that nothing was comparable to the bite of an asp, which without convulsion or groaning brought on a heavy drowsiness and lethargy with a gentle sweat on the face, the sense being supefied by degrees; the patient, in appearnce, being sensible of no pain, but rather troubled to be disturbed or awakened like those that are in a profound natural sleep.'" Page 301. Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. Part Six Chapter 11 The Final Year: Defeat, Death and Eternal Life, pages 295-319. New York: Harper Collins, 1988.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet/page/301/mode/1up

Fletcher, Joann, Dr. "301 'she pretty well satisfied herself that nothing was comparable to the bite of an asp, which without convulsion or groaning brought on a heavy drowsiness and lethargy with a gentle sweat on the face, the sense being supefied by degrees; the patient, in appearnce, being sensible of no pain, but rather troubled to be disturbed or awakened like those that are in a profound natural sleep.' Plutarch, Antony, Dryden trans., p. 774: Pages 404-405. Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend. Notes, Chapter 11 The Final Year: Defeat, Death and Eternal Life, pages 404-405. New York: Harper Collins, 1988.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/cleopatragreatwo00flet/page/404/mode/1up

Gorringe, Henry H. Egyptian Obelisks. New York: Published by the Author, 1882.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/egyptianobelisks00gorruoft/
Available via Internet Archive @ https://ia902904.us.archive.org/31/items/EgyptianObelisksGorringeHenryHBySamy/Egyptian%20obelisks%20%20Gorringe%2C%20Henry%20H%20By%20Samy.pdf

History.com Editors. "Augustus." History.com > Topics > Ancient Rome. Nov. 9, 2009. Updated June 12, 2023.
Available via The History Channel @ https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-rome/emperor-augustus

James, Edward Boucher; and William Smith, ed. "PSYLLI Eth. PSYLLI (Eth. Ψύλλοι, Hecat. Fr. 303, ed. Klausen; Hdt. 4.173; Strab. ii. p.131, xiii. p. 588, xvii. pp. 814, 838; Plin. Nat. 5.4, 7.2, 8.38, 11.30, 25.76, 28.6; Aelian, Nat. An. 6.33), a people on the shores of the Greater Syrtis, who bordered on the Nasamones, occupying that part of the shores of Sórt which lies between Aulad Sliman and Aulad Naim. According to Herodotus (l.c.) they sallied forth against Notos, or the S. wind, and were buried in the sands which were raised by the offended wind. Their country was afterwards occupied by the Nasamones.
The story gives a vivid picture of those seas of sand, unbathed by dew or rain, when the fine dust-like particles, rising through the rarefied air, roll up in dark oppressive clouds. They were supposed by the ancients to have a secret art enabling them to secure themselves from the poison of serpents, like the “Háwee,” or snake jugglers of Cairo. (Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. v. p. 241 ; Lane, Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. p. 214; Quatremère, Mém. sur l'Egypte, vol. i. pp. 203--211.) Cato [p. 2.677] brought some of these people in his train when he led the way into the depths of the desert which skirts the Lesser Syrtis (Plut. Cat. Mi. 56; Lucan 9.891); and Octavius made use of the services of these poison-suckers, it was said, in order to restore his victim, Cleopatra, to life. (D. C. 51.14; comp. Lucan 9.925.)." Pages 676-677. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. In two volumes. Vol. II Iabadius-Zymethus. London: Walton and Maberly, M.DCCC.LVII [1857].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofgree02smit/page/676/mode/1up

Lucius Cassius Dio. "13.4. And so it came about. For as soon as the others and Epaphroditus, to whose charge she had been committed, had come to believe that she really felt as she pretended to, and neglected to keep a careful watch, she made her preparations to die as painlessly as possible. First she gave a sealed paper, in which she begged Caesar to order that she be buried beside Antony, to Epaphroditus himself to deliver, pretending that it contained some other matter, and then, having by this excuse freed herself of his presence, she set to her task. She put on her most beautiful apparel, arranged her body in most seemly fashion, took in her hands all the emblems of royalty, and so died." Book LI.13.4-13.5, pages 38-39. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/38/mode/1up
Available via The University of Chicago Library LacusCurtius (formerly Penelope) @ https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/51*.html

Lucius Cassius Dio. "14.1. No one knows clearly in what way she perished, for the only marks on her body were slight pricks on the arm. Some say she applied to herself an asp which had been brought in to her in a water-jar, or perhaps hidden in some flowers. Others declare that she had smeared a pin, with which she was wont to fasten her hair, with some poison possessed of such a property that in ordinary circumstances it would not injure the body at all, but if it came into contact with even a drop of blood would destroy the body very quietly and painlessly; and that previous to this time she had worn it in her hair as usual, but now had made a slight scratch on her arm and had dipped the pin in the blood. In this or in some very similar way she perished, and her two handmaidens with her. As for the eunuch, he had of his own accord delivered himself up to the serpents at the very time of Cleopatra's arrest, and after being bitten by them had leaped into a coffin already prepared for him. When Caesar heard of Cleopatra's death, he was astounded, and not only viewed her body but also made use of drugs and Psylli in the hope that she might revive. These Psylli are males, for there is no woman born in their tribe, and they have the power to suck out any poison of any reptile, if use is made of them immediately, before the victim dies; and they are not harmed themselves when bitten by any such creature. They are propagated from one another and they test their offspring either by having them thrown among serpents as soon as they are born or else by having their swaddling-clothes thrown upon serpents; for the reptiles in the one case do no harm to the child, and in the other case are benumbed by its clothing. 6 So much for this matter. But Caesar, when he could not in any way resuscitate Cleopatra, felt both admiration and pity for her, and was excessively grieved on his own account, as if he had been deprived of all the glory of his victory." Book LI.14.1-14.6, pages 38-41. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/38/mode/1up
Available via The University of Chicago Library LacusCurtius (formerly Penelope) @ https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/51*.html

Lucius Cassius Dio. "15.1. Thus Antony and Cleopatra, who had caused many evils to the Egyptians and many to the Romans, made war and met their death in the manner I have described; and they were both embalmed in the same fashion and buried in the same tomb. Their qualities of character and the fortunes of their lives were as follows. 2 Antony had no superior in comprehending his duty, yet he committed many acts of folly. He sometimes distinguished himself for bravery, yet often failed through cowardice. He was characterized equally by greatness of soul and by servility of mind. He would plunder the property of others and would squander his own. 3 He showed compassion to many without cause and punished even more without justice. Consequently, though he rose from utter weakness to great power, and from the depths of poverty to great riches, he derived no profit from either circumstance, but after hoping to gain single-handed the empire of the Romans, he took his own life. 4 Cleopatra was of insatiable passion and insatiable avarice; she was swayed often by laudable ambition, but often by overweening effrontery. By love she gained the title of Queen of the Egyptians, and when she hoped by the same means to win also that of Queen of the Romans, she failed of this and lost the other besides. She captivated the two greatest Romans of her day, and because of the third she destroyed herself." Book LI.15.1-15.4, pages 40-43. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/40/mode/1up
Available via The University of Chicago Library LacusCurtius (formerly Penelope) @ https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/51*.html

Lucius Cassius Dio. "15.5. Such were these two and such was their end. Of their children, Antyllus was slain immediately, though he was betrothed to the daughter of Caesar and had taken refuge in his father's shrine, which Cleopatra had built; and Caesarion while fleeing to Ethiopia was overtaken on the road and murdered. 6 Cleopatra was married to Juba, the son of Juba; for to this man who had been brought up in Italy and had been with him on campaigns, Caesar gave both the maid and the kingdom of his fathers, and as a favour to them spared the lives of Alexander and Ptolemy." Book LI.15.5-15.6, pages 42-43. Dio's Roman History, vol. VI. With an English Translation by Earnest Cary, Ph.D. On the Basis of the Version of Herbert Baldwin Forster, Ph.D. Loeb Classical Library LBL 175. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA Harvard University Press, MCMLV [1955].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/diosromanhistory06cassuoft/page/42/mode/1up
Available via The University of Chicago Library LacusCurtius (formerly Penelope) @ https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/51*.html

Mounier, Louis. "Trials and Hardships of Immigrants." Read at The Vineland Historical and Antiquarian Society March 8, 1933. The Vineland Historical Magazine.
Available @ https://static1.squarespace.com/static/56fd4f0d45bf21c39ace2e5b/t/6154c19409456d494b7351ad/1632944533312/Trials+and+Tribulations+by+Louis+Mounier+Draft+for+exhib.pdf

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXI. As for the children of Antony, Antyllus, his son by Fulvia, was betrayed by Theodorus his tutor and put to death; and after the soldiers had cut off his head, his tutor took away the exceeding precious stone which the boy wore about his neck and sewed it into his own girdle; and though he denied the deed, he was convicted of it and crucified. [2] Cleopatra's children, together with their attendants, were kept under guard and had generous treatment. But Caesarion, who was said to be Cleopatra's son by Julius Caesar, was sent by his mother, with much treasure, into India, by way of Ethiopia. There Rhodon, another tutor like Theodorus, persuaded him to go back, on the ground that Caesar invited him to take the kingdom. But while Caesar was deliberating on the matter, we are told that Areius said: -- Not a good thing were a Caesar too many." Pages 318-321. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].br /> Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/318/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D81

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXII. As for Caesarion, then, he was afterwards put to death by Caesar, -- after the death of Cleopatra; but as for Antony, though many generals and kings asked for his body that they might give it burial, Caesar would not take it away from Cleopatra, and it was buried by her hands in sumptuous and royal fashion, such things being granted her for the purpose as she desired. But in consequence of so much grief as well as pain (for her breasts were wounded and inflamed by the blows she gave them) a fever assailed her, and she welcomed it as an excuse for abstaining from food and so releasing herself from life without hindrance. [2] Moreover, there was a physician in her company of intimates, Olympus, to whom she told the truth, and she had his counsel and assistance in compassing her death, as Olympus himself testifies in a history of these events which he published. But Caesar was suspicious, and plied her with threats and fears regarding her children, by which she was laid low, as by engines of war, and surrendered her body for such care and nourishment as was desired." Pages 320-321. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].br /> Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/320/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D82

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXIII. After a few days Caesar himself came to talk with her and give her comfort. She was lying on a mean pallet-bed, clad only in her tunic, but sprang up as he entered and threw herself at his feet; her hair and face were in terrible disarray, her voice trembled, and her eyes were sunken. There were also visible many marks of the cruel blows upon her bosom; in a word, her body seemed to be no better off than her spirit. [2] Nevertheless, the charm for which she was famous and the boldness of her beauty were not altogether extinguished, but, although she was in such a sorry plight, they shone forth from within and made themselves manifest in the play of her features. After Caesar had bidden her to lie down and had seated himself near her, she began a sort of justification of her course, ascribing it to necessity and fear of Antony; but as Caesar opposed and refuted her on every point, she quickly changed her tone and sought to move his pity by prayers, as one who above all things clung to life. [3] And finally she gave him a list which she had of all her treasures; and when Seleucus, one of her stewards, showed conclusively that she was stealing away and hiding some of them, she sprang up, seized him by the hair, and showered blows upon his face. [4] And when Caesar, with a smile, stopped her, she said: ‘But is it not a monstrous thing, O Caesar, that when thou hast deigned to come to me and speak to me though I am in this wretched plight, my slaves denounce me for reserving some women's adornments, -- not for myself, indeed, unhappy woman that I am, -- but that I may make trifling gifts to Octavia and thy Livia, and through their intercession find thee merciful and more gentle?’ [5] Caesar was pleased with this speech, being altogether of the opinion that she desired to live. He told her, therefore, that he left these matters for her to manage, and that in all other ways he would give her more splendid treatment than she could possibly expect. Then he went off, supposing that he had deceived her, but the rather deceived by her." Pages 320-325. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].br /> Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/320/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D83

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXIV. Now, there was a young man of rank among Caesar's companions, named Cornelius Dolabella. This man was not without a certain tenderness for Cleopatra; and so now, in response to her request, he secretly sent word to her that Caesar himself was preparing to march with his land forces through Syria, and had resolved to send off her and her children within three days. [2] After Cleopatra had heard this, in the first place, she begged Caesar that she might be permitted to pour libations for Antony; and when the request was granted, she had herself carried to the tomb, and embracing the urn which held his ashes, in company with the women usually about her, she said: ‘Dear Antony, I buried thee but lately with hands still free; now, however, I pour libations for thee as a captive, and so carefully guarded that I cannot either with blows or tears disfigure this body of mine, which is a slave's body, and closely watched that it may grace the triumph over thee. [3] Do not expect other honours or libations; these are the last from Cleopatra the captive. For though in life nothing could part us from each other, in death we are likely to change places; thou, the Roman, lying buried here, while I, the hapless woman, lie in Italy, and get only so much of thy country as my portion. [4] But if indeed there is any might or power in the gods of that country (for the gods of this country have betrayed us), do not abandon thine own wife while she lives, nor permit a triumph to be celebrated over thyself in my person, but hide and bury me here with thyself, since out of all my innumerable ills not one is so great and dreadful as this short time that I have lived apart from thee.'" Pages 324-325. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].br /> Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/324/mode/1upbr /> Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D85

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXV. After such lamentations, she wreathed and kissed the urn, and then ordered a bath to be prepared for herself. After her bath, she reclined at table and was making a sumptuous meal. And there came a man from the country carrying a basket; and when the guards asked him what he was bringing there, he opened the basket, took away the leaves, and showed them that the dish inside was full of figs. [2] The guards were amazed at the great size and beauty of the figs, whereupon the man smiled and asked them to take some; so they felt no mistrust and bade him take them in. After her meal, however, Cleopatra took a tablet which was already written upon and sealed, and sent it to Caesar, and then, sending away all the rest of the company except her two faithful women, she closed the doors.
"[3] But Caesar opened the tablet, and when he found there lamentations and supplications of one who begged that he would bury her with Antony, he quickly knew what had happened. At first he was minded to go himself and give aid; then he ordered messengers to go with all speed and investigate. But the mischief had been swift. For though his messengers came on the run and found the guards as yet aware of nothing, when they opened the doors they found Cleopatra lying dead upon a golden couch, arrayed in royal state. [4] And of her two women, the one called Iras was dying at her feet, while Charmion, already tottering and heavy-headed, was trying to arrange the diadem which encircled the queen's brow. Then somebody said in anger: ‘A fine deed, this, Charmion!’ ‘It is indeed most fine,’ she said, ‘and befitting the descendant of so many kings.’ Not a word more did she speak, but fell there by the side of the couch." Pages 326-329. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/326/mode/2up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D85

Perrin, Bernadotte, trans. "LXXXVI. "It is said that the asp was brought with those figs and leaves and lay hidden beneath them, for thus Cleopatra had given orders, that the reptile might fasten itself upon her body without her being aware of it. But when she took away some of the figs and saw it, she said: ‘There it is, you see,’ and baring her arm she held it out for the bite. [2] But others say that the asp was kept carefully shut up in a water jar, and that while Cleopatra was stirring it up and irritating it with a golden distaff it sprang and fastened itself upon her arm. But the truth of the matter no one knows; for it was also said that she carried about poison in a hollow comb and kept the comb hidden in her hair; and yet neither spot nor other sign of poison broke out upon her body. [3] Moreover, not even was the reptile seen within the chamber, though people said they saw some traces of it near the sea, where the chamber looked out upon it with its windows. And some also say that Cleopatra's arm was seen to have two slight and indistinct punctures; and this Caesar also seems to have believed. For in his triumph an image of Cleopatra herself with the asp clinging to her was carried in the procession. These, then, are the various accounts of what happened.
"[4] But Caesar, although vexed at the death of the woman, admired her lofty spirit; and he gave orders that her body should be buried with that of Antony in splendid and regal fashion. Her women also received honourable interment by his orders. When Cleopatra died she was forty years of age save one, had been queen for two and twenty of these, and had shared her power with Antony more than fourteen. [5] Antony was fifty-six years of age, according to some, according to others, fifty-three. Now, the statues of Antony were torn down, but those of Cleopatra were left standing, because Archibius, one of her friends, gave Caesar two thousand talents, in order that they might not suffer the same fate as Antony's." Pages 328-331. Plutarch's Lives, vol. IX: Anthony, pages 138-333. In eleven volumes. Loeb Classical Library. First printed 1920. London: William Heinemann Ltd; Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, MCMLIX [1959].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/plutarchslives09plutuoft/page/328/mode/1up
Available via Perseus Digital Library Project -- Tufts University @ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0007%3Achapter%3D86

Shelton, Jo-An. As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/asromansdidsourc0000shel/

Shelton, Jo-An. "Augustus." Footnote 79, page 55. As the Romans Did: A Sourcebook in Roman Social History. New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/asromansdidsourc0000shel/page/55/mode/1up

Smith, William, ed. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. In two volumes. Vol. II Iabadius-Zymethus. London: Walton and Maberly, M.DCCC.LVII [1857].
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofgree02smit/

Williamson, Jacquelyn."Cleopatra and Fake News: How ancient Roman political needs created a mythic temptress." Folger Shakespeare Library > Blogs. Oct. 20, 2017.
Available @ https://www.folger.edu/blogs/shakespeare-and-beyond/cleopatra-mythic-temptress/

Thursday, October 6, 2022

Quintilii Marble Head May Copy Cleopatra Statue in Temple of Venus

Summary: A Villa of the Quintilii marble head may copy the Cleopatra statue in the Temple of Venus Genetrix located in Rome's Forum of Caesar (Forum Caesaris).

Identified as portraying Cleopatra, a Villa of the Quintilii marble head may copy the Cleopatra statue in the Temple of Venus Genetrix that Julius Caesar dedicated in his new forum, Forum Iulium, in Rome in 46 BCE.

The Villa of the Quintilii (Italian: Villa dei Quintili) is sited at the fifth milestone of the Via Appia Antica ("Old or Ancient Appian Way"). In its greatest span of 362 miles (582 kilometers), the ancient Roman road linked central Rome's Roman Forum (Forum Romanum) with the port of Brindisi in southeast Italy's heel, according to Encyclopedia Britannica's online "Appian Way" entry. The road's construction began in 312 BCE, during the consulships of Marcus Valerius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus (died 295 BCE), according to classics professors Matthew Dillon and Lynda Garland in Ancient Rome: Social and Historical Documents From the Early Republic to the Death of Augustus (2.4).

The Villa of the Quintilii occupies an approximately rectangular property with an east-to-west stretch between Via Appia Nuova ("New Appian Way") and Via Appia Antica. Construction of Via Nuova Appia, which parallels the older road, originated with the late 18th-century papacy (Feb. 15, 1775-1799) of Pius VI (born Count Giovanni Angelo Braschi; Dec. 25, 1717-Aug. 29, 1799).

The construction of the Villa of the Quintilii dates to the first half of the second century CE, according to conservation scientist Giusj Valentina Fichera and seven co-authors in "Limestone Provenance in Roman Lime-Volcanic Ash Mortars From the Villa dei Quintili, Rome," published in the February 2015 issue of Geoarchaeology. The residential complex was built during the Roman emperorships of Trajan and Hadrian (page 81). Caesar Nerva Traianus "Trajan" (Sep. 18, 53-Aug. 8, 117 CE) began his reign Jan. 27, 98 BCE, upon the death of his predecessor, Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva; Nov. 8, 30-Jan. 27, 98 CE). Nerva, Trajan and Trajan's successor, Hadrian (Caesar Traianus Hadrianus; Jan. 24, 76-July 10, 138 CE), are recognized as the first, second and third, respectively, of the "Five Good Emperors" in the Roman Empire's seven-member Nerva-Antonine dynasty.

The Villa of the Quintili was home for Sextus Quintilius Condianus (Italian: Sesto Quintilio Condiano) and his brother, Sextus Quintilius Valerius Maximus (Italian: Sesto Quintilio Valerio Massimo). The brothers held government positions during the reigns of the fourth and fifth "Five Good Emperors," Antoninus Pius (Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius; Sep. 19, 86-March 7, 161 CE) and Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (April 26, 121-March 17, 180 CE). The Quintilii brothers served as consuls in 151 CE, during Marcus Aurelius's emperorship.

The Quintilii brothers lost their property to imperial confiscation and also their lives in 182 CE. Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus (Aug. 31, 161-Dec. 31, 192 CE), who succeeded his father, Marcus Aurelius, had the brothers executed as purported conspirators in the failed assassination and coup orchestrated by Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla "Lucilla" (March 7, 148 or 150-182 CE), Marcus Aurelius's second daughter.

A marble head with a diadem and a melon hairstyle of braided rows gathered into a nape neck bun numbered among sculptures retrieved by Venceslao Pezolli during his 1783-1784 excavations at the Villa of the Quintilli, according to ancient art curators Carlos A. Picón and Seán Hemingway in the Catalogue (page 303) published in conjunction with "Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World," exhibited Monday, April 18, through Sunday, July 17, 2016, at New York City's Metropolitan Museum of Art. The marble head was added to the collections of the Vatican Museum (Musei Vaticani) in 1784, according to the museum's online catalogue (inventory number MV.38511.0.0). Its inventory record dates the marble portrait to 47 to 44 BCE.

The Quintilii marble head was identified as a portrait of Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII Philopator (Ancient Greek: Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ, Kleopatra Philopator; ca. 69-Aug. 10 or 12, 30 BCE) by German archaeologist Ludwig Curtius (Dec. 13, 1874-April 10, 1954) in "Ikonographische Beiträge zum Porträt der Römischen Republik und der Julisch-Claudischen Familie: IV Kleopatra VII. Philopator," published in 1933 in Römische Mitteilungen (band 48: 182-192). A raised scar on the left cheek suggested for Curtius the remnant of a sculpture of Cupid, Roman goddess Venus's son. The lost Cupid and the interpretation of the diadem's front bump as a jewel possibilitized the Quintilii marble head as a replica of the lost statue of Cleopatra commissioned by Roman general and statesman Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12 or 13, 100-March 15, 44 BCE) for the Temple of Venus Genetrix (Venus the Mother; Venus the Ancestress) that he located in his new forum, Forum Iulium (Forum of the Iulius; Julius Caesar's paternal gens Iulia lineage), popularly known as Forum Caesaris (Forum of Caesar), in Rome. Caesar held a joint dedication of the forum and the temple on Sep. 26, 46 BCE.

A hidden mother with child wall painting in Pompeii's House of Marcus Fabius Rufus (Marco Fabio Rufo) offers support for Curtius's association of the Quintilii marble head with the Temple of Venus Genetrix's lost Cleopatra statue, according to archaeologist Susan Walker (born Sep. 11, 1948) in "Cleopatra in Pompeii?", published in the November 2008 issue of Papers of the British School at Rome (page 40). The Pompeii painting portrays Cleopatra with her and Caesar's son, Ptolemy XV Caesar Philopator Philometor (Ancient Greek: Πτολεμαῖος Καῖσαρ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ, Ptolemaios Kaisar Philopator Philometor, "Ptolemy Caesar, Beloved of his Father, Beloved of his Mother"; 47-30 BCE), known as Caesarion (Ancient Greek: Καισαρίων, Kaisarion, "Little Caesar"), posing as Venus with Cupid, according to Walker's reading of the painting (pages 35, 39-40).

Curtius's findings of concordance between the Quintilii marble head and the Forum Iulium's lost Cleopatra statue and Walker's "points of correspondence" between Cleopatra's face in the Pompeii painting and in the Quintilii marble head suggest the lost statue as the inspiration for the Quintilii marble head (page 40).

A ginger tabby pauses before the bath house complex, comprising caldarium (room with bath of hot water) and frigidarium (room with bath of cold water), on the grounds of Rome's Villa of the Quintilii; Wednesday, Sep. 29, 2021: Pat.no54, CC BY SA 4.0 International, via Wikimedia Commons

Acknowledgment

My special thanks to talented artists and photographers/concerned organizations who make their fine images available on the internet.

Dedication

Villa of the Quintilii's marble head of Cleopatra is displayed in Museo Gregoriano Profano (Gregoriano Profano Museum), which is located on the lower floor of Musei Vaticani (Vatican Museums); Friday, May 9, 2008, 14:12: Sergey Sosnovskiy (Ancientrome), CC BY SA 4.0 International, via Wikimedia Commons @ https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cleopatra_VII,_Marble,_40-30_BC,_Vatican_Museums_004.jpg; Sergey Sosnovskiy, CC BY SA 4.0 International, via Ancientrome.ru @ http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/img.htm?id=6364

Ashby, Th. (Thomas). "La Villa dei Quintilii." Ausonia: Rivista della Società Italiana di Archeologia e Storia dell'Arte, anno IV MCMIX [1909], fascicolo I: 48-88.
Available via Internet Archive @ https://archive.org/details/ausoniarivistade34soci/page/n507/mode/1up

Bellomo, M. (Mariangela); and S. (Salvatore) D'Agostino. "Excavation, Restoration and Conservation of Archaeological Sites -- Villa dei Quintili on the Appia Antica in Rome." WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, vol. 42 (1999): 451-460.
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Bignamini, Ilaria; and Amanda Claridge. "55. . . . Venceslao Pezzoli employed only four to ten workmen in his larger scale excavations on the site of the Villa dei Quintili in 1788-90 (U. Schädler, "Dallo scavo al museo di Pio VI nella Villa dei Quintili', Bollettino monumenti, musei e gallerie pontificie 16 (1996), 296 n. 32)." Page 241. "The Tomb of Claudia Semne and Excavations in Eighteenth-Century Rome." Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. 66 (1998): 215-244.
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Broughton, T. (Thomas) Robert S. (Shannon). The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. Vol. II: 99 B.C.-31 B.C. Phillip H. De Lacy, ed., Philological Monographs, no. XV, vol. II. New York: The American Philological Association, 1952.
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Broughton, T. (Thomas) Robert S. (Shannon). Supplement to The Magistrates of the Roman Republic. Phillip H. De Lacy, ed., Philological Monographs, no. XV, vol. I. New York: The American Philological Association, 1960.
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Catalogo Musei Vaticani. "Inventario: MV.179.0.0. Description: Statua acefala femminile da modelli della fine V-inizi IV sec. a.C., integrata come Cerere, integrata con il calco di una testa di Cleopatra (inv. 38511). Datazione: prima metà II sec. d.C. Materia: marmo bianco. Misure: h cm 179. Periodo acquisizione: 1784. Tipo acquisizione: venduta da Ferdinando Lisandroni. Provenienza: da Roma, scavi Venceslao Pezolli nella Villa dei Quintili sulla via Appia ("Roma Vecchia"), 1783-1784; la provenienza dallo scavo alla Tomba di Nerone sulla via Cassia (Visconti) è errata. Location: SCV > Museo Pio Clementino > Sala a Croce Greca > 21." Musei Vaticani > Collections > Online Catalogue > Consult the Catalogue.
Available @ https://catalogo.museivaticani.va/index.php/Detail/objects/MV.179.0.0

Catalogo Musei Vaticani. "Inventario: MV.38511.0.0. Descrizione: Testa ritratto di Cleopatra VII, pertinente a una statua eseguita probabilmente quando la regina era ospite di Cesare a Roma. Il diadema regale a fascia poteva essere rivestito da una lamina in bronzo doratoe completato da un ureo, anch'esso in metallo. Datazione: 47-44 a.C. a.C. Materia: marmo pario. Misure: cm 39 x 20 x 20. Provenienza: da Roma, Villa dei Quintili, scavi 1784. Collocazione: SCV > Edificio Paolino > Museo Gregoriano Profano > Settore 4 -- Aurai." Musei Vaticani > Collections > Online Catalogue > Consult the Catalogue.
Available @ https://catalogo.museivaticani.va/index.php/Detail/objects/MV.38511.0.0

Collins, Jeffrey. ". . . . Among the best documented are the extensive papal campaigns at the Villa dei Quintili (so-called Roma Vecchia) on via Appia. conducted by Venceslao Pezzoli in 1983-4 and 1788-92. Pezzoli conducted eighteen such excavations in the space of a single decade, and the records kept at Roma Vecchia are allowing modern historians of archeology to reconstruct the origin and destination of works whose provence has often been lost. . . ." Page 166. Papacy and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Rome: Pius VI and the Arts. Chapter Four: The Gods' Abode, pages 132-.
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de Grummond, Nancy Thomson, ed. "Clement XIV (Giovanni Vincenzo Ganganelli: 1705-74) . . . . commissioner of antiquities (*Commissario delle Antichità), G.B. *Visconti . . . . initiated systematic campaigns of excavation directed by the sculptor and restorer Gaspare Sibilla and with Venceslao Pezolli as inspector, in order to acquire further material." Page 291. An Encyclopedia of the History of Classical Archaeology. New York NY: Routledge, 1996.
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Dillon, Matthew; and Lynda Garland. "2.4 Frontinus On Aqueducts 1.5: Rome's water supply . . . . In the consulship of Marcus Valerius Maximus and Publius Decius Mus (312 BC), the thirtieth year after the start of the Samnite War, the Appian aqueduct was brought into the city by Appius Claudius Crassus, the censor, who was later given the surname Caecus ('the blind'); he was also responsible for the construction of the Appian Way from the Capena gate up to the city of Capua." Ancient Rome: Social and Historical Documents From the Early Republic to the Death of Augustus, "2 The Public Face of Rome; The Infrastructure of the City: 2.1-2.4." Routledge Sourcebooks for the Ancient World. Second edition. First published 2005. New York: Routledge, 2015.
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Grossi-Gondi, F. (Felice). "Qualora poi il nostro cippo ricordasse appunto uno dei due famosi fratelli Quintili, proprietari di questa villa, convien dire che, non facendosi quivi cenno nel cursus honorum del consolato di Massimo, l'iscrizione è anteriore al 151. In quest'anno infatti tanto Massimo che Condiano furono consoli. Indi governarono insieme la Grecia (verso il 173 d.C.), l'Illirico (177 d. C.). Seguirono Marco Aurelio in Oriente (175-176 d. C.), ed ebbero anche qualche vittoria contro gli Alemanni. Nelle controversie che ebbe Atene con Erode Attico i Quintili tennero per quella. Verso il 183 vennero entrambi fatti uccidere da Commodo. . . ." La Villa dei Quintili e la Villa di Mondragone, Chapter II, page 40. Le Ville Tusculane Nell'Epoca Classica e Dopo Il Rinascimento. Roma: Tip. Dell'Unione Cooperativa Editrice, 1901.
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Waldstein, Charles. "Pasiteles and Arkesilaos, the Venus Genetrix and the Venus of the Esquiline." The American Journal of Archaeology and of the History of the Fine Arts, vol. III, nos. 1 and 2 (June 1887): 1-13.
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White, Horace, trans. "Chap.XV.102. . . . He erected the temple to Venus, his ancestress, as he had vowed to do when he was about to begin the battle of Pharsalus, and he laid out ground around the temple which he intended to be a forum for the Roman people, not for buying and selling, but a meeting-place for the transaction of public business, like the public squares of the Persians, where the people assemble to seek justice or to learn the laws. He placed a beautiful image of Cleopatra by the side of the goddess, which stands there to this day. . . ." Pages 414-417. Appian's Roman History: The Civil Wars. In four volumes. Volume III. Book II: 229-515. First printed 1913. Reprinted 1933, 1958, 1964. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd., MCMLXIV (1964).
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